Hindu Philosophy and Modern Science
To “ My Parents”
who introduced me to old Hindu scriptures and the
concepts of religion at an early age.
who introduced me to old Hindu scriptures and the
concepts of religion at an early age.
It is proposed to add Chapters every month as per the following Content.
I. ORIGIN OF UNIVERSE
II. Indian Civilization & Literature
Vedic Literature
Chronology
Vedic cognitive science
Origin of Universe in Vedas
Yuga
The origin of the Sun
Man and God
Forces of Nature
III. Basics of Hindu Philosophy
IV. Modern Science and Eastern Philosophy
Buddhist Philosophy
V. Atomic Physics
Space and Time
What is the origin of this world?”
Atomic Theory and Hindu Philosophy
Vedanta and Physics
VI. Metallurgy
Copper
VII. Chemistry
Chemistry in Kautilya
Glass
Dyes and Paints
Cosmetics
Cements
Medicine
Ayurveda
Rasaratnakara of Nagarjuna
Chemistry of Rasarnava
Architecture / Town Planning
Art of Writing
Art and Sculpture
Painting
VIII. Vedangas / Literature – Grammar / Education
Education
Arthasashtra
IX. Mathematics
Vedic Mathematics
Vedic Sutras to Mathematical Problems
II. Indian Civilization & Literature
Vedic Literature
Chronology
Vedic cognitive science
Origin of Universe in Vedas
Yuga
The origin of the Sun
Man and God
Forces of Nature
III. Basics of Hindu Philosophy
IV. Modern Science and Eastern Philosophy
Buddhist Philosophy
V. Atomic Physics
Space and Time
What is the origin of this world?”
Atomic Theory and Hindu Philosophy
Vedanta and Physics
VI. Metallurgy
Copper
VII. Chemistry
Chemistry in Kautilya
Glass
Dyes and Paints
Cosmetics
Cements
Medicine
Ayurveda
Rasaratnakara of Nagarjuna
Chemistry of Rasarnava
Architecture / Town Planning
Art of Writing
Art and Sculpture
Painting
VIII. Vedangas / Literature – Grammar / Education
Education
Arthasashtra
IX. Mathematics
Vedic Mathematics
Vedic Sutras to Mathematical Problems
I.
India is one of those few countries of the world which attained very high civilization standard at early stage of world history. India made major contribution to human civilization like the numerals which are used all over the world, algebra – a branch of mathematics, game of Chess , anti-ageing medicine and plastic surgery are some example of such contribution.
Pathetic state of affair of present day India does not encourage anybody to study the part of this great society and nation that was Bharat. Contribution of Bharat & Hindu Philosophy in different fields of human life – literature, music, painting & sculpture, mathematics & algebra, architecture & city planning, astronomy, astrophysics & astrology etc are well chronicled established facts. I do not intend to follow the same path & repeat those words to show how great “Bharat” was. Remembering those great achievements of a great race is painful in the light of present India’s degenerated society of pigmies.
Life in all organisms is the same. Only the combination of chemical elements differ. Life’s evolution may be conceived as the process of differentiation of matter. The appearance of divergence is only due to different combination of elements that lead to differentiation of matter. This is the essence of Hindu (Advaita) philosophy and of science. ( Ref. 1 , p. 2).
Everything on this planet has emerged from the same cosmic matter. “……..everyone who is seriously involved in the pursuit of science becomes convinced that a spirit is manifest in the laws of Universe. A Spirit, vastly superior to that of a man, and one in the face of which, we with our modest powers must feel humble” ( Albert Einstein ) (Ref. 1; p vi)
ORIGIN OF UNIVERSE
Did the universe have a beginning, and if so, what happened before then? What is the nature of time? Will it ever come to an end?
Hubble’s observations suggested that there was a time, called the big bang, when the universe was infinitesimally small and infinitely dense. Under such conditions all the laws of science, and therefore all ability to predict the effect, would break down. If there were events earlier than this time, then they could not affect what happens at the present time. Their existence can be ignored because it would have no observational consequences. One may say that time had a beginning at the big bang, in the sense that earlier times simply would not be defined. (Ref. 2, p 5 & 9)
Since the discovery of cosmic radiation in 1965, extensive theoretical research has produced a fairly detailed picture of how the universe probably evolved. The crucial assumption of the standard hot big-bang model is that the universe so created was in a state of rapid expansion from a very nearly homogenous isotropic condition of infinite density ( 1073 gm per cc) and temperature (10 28 K) – a state of singularity created by some super natural power. This state can be imagined as if the entire matter in the universe were compressed to the size of an atom and the entire energy of 1068 joules available was converted to heat energy. (Ref.1, p. 3 ) Matter, either in sold, liquid or gaseous form could not exist in this state. According to some of the latest studies, this state of high temperature and density could probably be the quark-gluon plasma. The protons in the nucleus of an atom are said to comprise of three quarks glued together under a great force.
As the universe expanded, it’s expansion was dominated by radiation until a period of 105 years and the temperature dropped to a few thousand degrees. At this time two interesting things must have taken place; the universe ceased to be radiation dominant and became matter dominant. The energy of the photons became so less that the hydrogen atoms could not be kept in ionized state, resulting in the combination of electrons and protons. (Ref 1, p 3 & 4)
The assumption that the universe looks the same in every direction is clearly not true in reality. For example, as we have seen, the other stars in our galaxy form a distinct band of light across the night sky, called the Milky Way. All we know is that the universe is expanding by between 5 percent and 10 percent every thousand million years. (Ref. 2, p 43, 49) .Large scale isotropy is also true as discussed later.
What caused the big- bang? Present knowledge is very limited in explaining what probably caused the big-bang. According to the inflation theory postulated by Alan Guth, what existed prior to the big-bang was a sort of quantum vacuum with zero energy state. From a featureless ferment of quantum state, bubbles of empty space began to inflate at an accelerating rate trapping colossal reserves of energy into existence. With the influence of negative pressure under cosmic repulsion, energy can leap by huge amounts from one vacuum state to other. This false vacuum infused with self-created energy will be unstable and begin to decay dumping its energy in the form of heat filling each bubble with a fire-ball. Inflation after some stage ceased and the big-bang must have started. This theory which envisages creation of energy out of nothing is still a speculation and has not been accepted. (Ref.1 & sub-references).
Today scientists describe the universe in terms of two basic partial theories – the general theory of relativity and quantum mechanics. They are the great intellectual achievements of the first half of last century. The general theory of relativity describes the force of gravity and the large-scale structure of the universe, that is, the structure on scales from only a few miles to as a million million million million (1 with twenty-four zeros after it ) miles , the size of the observable universe. Quantum mechanics, on the other hand, deals with phenomena on extremely small scales, such as a millionth of a millionth of an inch. Unfortunately, however, these two theories are known to be inconsistent with each other - they cannot both be correct. One of the major endeavors in physics today, is the search for a new theory that will incorporate them both-a quantum the-new theory of gravity. (Ref. 2, p 12 / 13)
At the big bang itself, the universe is thought to have had zero size, and so to have been infinitely hot. But as the universe expanded, the temperature of the radiation decreased. One second after the big bang, it would have fallen to about ten thousand million degrees. This is about a thousand times the temperature at the center of the sun, but temperatures as high as this are reached in H-bomb explosions. At this time the universe would have contained mostly photons, electrons, and neutrinos (extremely light particles that are affected only by the weak force and gravity) and their antiparticles, together with some protons and neutrons. As the universe continued to expand and the temperature to drop, the, the rate at which electron / anti-electron pairs were being produced in collisions would have fallen below the rate at which they were being destroyed by annihilation. (Ref. 2, p 123)
About one hundred seconds after the big bang, the temperature would have fallen to one thousand million degrees, the temperature inside the hottest stars. At this temperature protons and neutrons would no longer have sufficient energy to escape the attraction of the strong nuclear force, and would atoms of deuterium (heavy hydrogen), which contain one proton and one neutron. The deuterium nuclei then would have combined with more protons and neutrons to make helium nuclei, which contain two protons and two neutrons, and also small amounts of a couple of heavier elements, lithium and beryllium.
Within only a few hours of the big bang, the production of helium and other elements would have stopped. And after that, for the next million years or so, the universe would have just continued expanding, without anything much happening. Eventually, once the temperature had dropped to a few thousand degrees, and electrons and nuclei no longer had enough energy to overcome the electromagnetic attraction between them, they would have started combining to form atoms. The universe as a whole would have continued expanding and cooling, but in regions that were slightly denser than average, the expansion would have been slowed down by the extra gravitational attraction. This would eventually stop expansion in some regions and cause them to start to re-collapse.
This picture of a universe that started off very hot and cooled as it expanded is in agreement with all the observational evidence that we have today. Nevertheless, it leaves a number of important questions unanswered: (Ref. 2, 124)
1) Why was the early universe so hot?
2) Why is the universe so uniform on a large scale? Why does it look the same at all points of space and in all directions?
3) Why did the universe start out with so nearly the critical rate of expansion that separates models that re-collapse from those that go on expanding forever, so that even at nearly the critical rate ?
4) Despite the fact that the universe is so uniform and homogeneous on a large scale, it contains local irregularities, such as stars and galaxies.
5) The general theory of relativity, on its own, cannot explain these features or answer these questions because of its prediction that the universe started off with infinite density at the big bang singularity.
One possible answer is to say that God chose the initial configuration of the universe for reasons that we cannot hope to understand. This would certainly have been within the power of an incomprehensible way, why did he choose to let it evolve according to laws that we could understand? The whole history of science has been the gradual realization that events do not happen in an arbitrary manner, but that they reflect a certain underlying order, which may or may not be divinely inspired. (Ref 2, p 129).
About the future of the universe the cosmologists have little to say. They do not yet know whether our universe is expanding for ever or is now expanding and later will collapse. In principle this question can be answered in different ways. The simplest method is to find the average density of the matter in the universe by adding up all the masses of the galaxies. This density may be compared with the critical density of 5X10-30 g per c.c. If the density is greater, the universe one day starts collapsing and on the other hand if the density is less than this critical density, then the universe will expand for ever. With the present theoretical estimates the average density works out to be only 5 percent of the critical density. This suggests the universe is expanding for ever.
Even if one assumes this hypothesis that the universe keeps on expanding for ever, one has to answer as to how far it can expand ? Whether it be a quantum particle or a living being, it cannot exist independently of the rest of the environment. If this principle is applied to our galaxy which gets isolated from the rest of the galaxies, it probably cannot exist by itself. Secondly the universe may expand probably upto a time 1028 years form the beginning of the universe by which time the proton decay starts. This results in conversion of the entire matter in the universe into energy. Probably we will be left with a situation of quantum vacuum that existed prior to the initiation of the big-bang. ( Ref 2).
Indian Civilization & Literature
The recorded history of India began with the composition of the most ancient hymns of the Rigveda around 3100 B.C., when the Aryans made their first appearance in India. The composition of these hymns and the later Vedic literature, together with a floating literature of a secular genre called Purana, continued for a period of about 2500 years till the dawn of new era with the birth of Gautama Budda in 624 B.C.
The literature of ancient India can be divided into two classes, the religious and the secular. The religious literature, which is more and has been more carefully preserved, is called the Vedic literature. In chronological order it consists of the Samhita, Brahmanas and Upanishads.
Vedic Literature
The four Vedas, Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda, are called Samhitas or collections, and consist for the most part of prayers addressed to gods. The most ancient as well as the most important of these Samhitas is the Rigveda. The period during which most of its hyms were composed is called the Rigvedic period. This period began somewhere near the beginning of the third millennium B.C. and lasted roughly up to 2000 B.C. The three later Vedas are the Samveda, the Yajurveda and the Atharvaveda.
The Samhitas were followed by works called the Brahmanas which deal with the sacrificial ceremony. Each Veda has it’s own Brahmanas.
The last division of the Vedic literature are the Upanissads and Aranyakas which are the sources of the great Vedanta Philosophy. The principal Upanisads are the Aitareya, the Kausitaki, the Chandogya, the Isa, the Brhadaranyaka, the Mundaka, the Prasna , the Aranyaka , the Kathaponishad and the Mandukya Upanisads.
The period when the vast Brahmana and Upanisad literature was composed lasted for about five hundred years, roughly from 1100 B.C to 600 B.C. this period is called the period of the Brahamanas and Upanisads. The works belonging to this period, particularly the Aitareya and the Satapatha Brahmanas, contain much historical information of the period when they were composed as well as of the Rigvedic and the later Vedic periods.
The Vedic literature was followed by the Vedangas which are six viz. siksa or phonetics, vyakarana or grammar, nirukta or etymology , chhandas or metrics, jyotisa or astronomy and kalpa or ritual. The words written on these subjects are called vedangas because they were originally composed as auxiliary for the study of the Vedas.
The foregoing literature was composed by learned Brahmans and is (with the exception of the first five Vedangas) of a religious character. Besides this literature there was also a secular literature of a floating nature called Purana. This Purana was in the charge of Sutas or bard attached to the royal courts and dealt with the genealogies and achievements of the kings to whose courts the Sutas were attached. The successors of this Purana in a very late and corrupt form are the present Puranas which are eighteen in number. (Ref. 4, p 1-4)
Vedic Science
The reconstructions of our earliest science are based not only on the Vedas but also on their appendices called the Vedangas. Briefly, the texts present a tripartite and recursive world view. The universe is viewed as three regions of earth, space, and sky with the corresponding entities of Agni, Indra, and Vishve Devah (all gods).
In Vedic ritual the three regions are assigned different fire altars. Furthermore, the five categories are represented in terms of altars of five layers. The great altars were built of a thousand bricks to a variety of dimensions which coded astronomical knowledge.
In the Vedic world view, the processes in the sky, on earth, and within the mind are taken to be connected. The Vedic rishis were aware that all descriptions of the universe lead to logical paradox. The one category transcending all oppositions was termed Brahman. Understanding the nature of consciousness was of paramount importance in this did not mean that other sciences were ignored. Vedic ritual was a symbolic retelling of this world view.
Chronology
To place Vedic science in context it is necessary to have a proper understanding of the chronology of the Vedic literature. There are astronomical references in the Vedas which recall events in the third or the fourth millennium BC and earlier. The recent discovery that Sarasvati, the preeminent river of the Rigvedic times, went dry around 1900 BC due to tectonic updated prior to this epoch. Traditionally, Rigveda is taken to be prior to 3100 BC ( Ref.13 )
Vedic cognitive science
The Rigveda speaks of cosmic order. It is assumed that there exist equivalences of various kinds between the outer and the inner worlds. It is these connections that make it possible for our minds to comprehend the universe. It is noteworthy that the analytical methods are used both in the examination of the outer and inner world. This allowed the Vedic Rishis to place in sharp focus paradoxical aspects of analytical knowledge. Such paradoxes have become only too familiar to the contemporary scientist in all branches of inquiry.
In the Vedic view, the complementary nature of the mind and the outer world, is of fundamental significance. Knowledge is classified in two ways: the lower or dual; and the higher or unified. What this means is that knowledge is superficially dual and paradoxical but at a deeper level it has a unity. The Vedic view claims that the material and the conscious are aspects of the same transcendental reality.
The idea of complementarities was at the basis of the systematization of Indian philosophic traditions as well, so that complementary approaches were paired together. We have the groups of: logic (nyaya), and physics (vaisheshika), cosmology (sankhya) and psychology (yoga), and language (mimamsa) and reality (Vedanta). Although these philosophical schools were formalized in the post-Vedic age, we find an echo of these ideas in the Vedic texts.
In the Rigveda there is reference to the yoking of the horses to the chariot of Indra, Ashvins, or Agni; and we are told elsewhere that these gods represent the essential mind. The same metaphor of the chariot for a person is encountered in Katha Upanishad and the Bhagavad Gita; this chariot is pulled in different directions by the horses, representing senses, which are yoked to it. The mind is the driver who holds the reins to these horses; but next to the mind sits the true observer, the self, who represents a universal unity. Without this self no coherent behavior is possible. In the Taittiriya Upanishad, the individual is represented in terms of five different sheaths or levels that enclose the individual’s self.
The Sankhya and the yoga systems take the mind as consisting of five components: manas, ahankara, chitta, buddhi, and atman. Manas is the lower mind which collects sense impressions. Its perceptions shift from moment to moment. This sensory-motor mind obtains its inputs from the senses of hearing, touch, sight, taste, and smell. Each of these senses may be taken to be governed by a separate agent. Ahankara is the sense of I-ness that associates some perceptions to a subjective and personal experience. Once sensory impressions have been related to I-ness by ahankar, their evaluation and resulting decisions are arrived at by buddhi, the intellect, Manas, ahankara, and buddhi are collectively called the internal instruments of the mind.
Chitta is the memory bank of the mind. These memories constitute the foundation on which the rest of the mind operates. But Chitta is not merely a passive instrument. The organization of the new impressions flows up instruction of primitive urges which creates different emotional states.
This mental complex surrounds the innermost aspect of consciousness which is called atman, the self, Brahman, or jiva. Atman is considered to be beyond a finite enumeration of categories ( Ref.13).
Origin of Universe in Vedas
Let us now look into what was presented about the origin of universe, in the ‘Vedas’ comprise of ‘Samhitas’ , ‘Brahmanas’, ‘ Aranyakas’ and ‘Upanishads’ which are considered to be direct revelations from God to sages like Hayagriva and Agastya, embodying the supreme truth that could not be gained by any effort of human mind. In ancient times in the absence of any script, it is interesting to observe how the purity of the Vedas has been retained without much corruption. This aspect was supposed to have been taken care by the sages by inventing at least four types of memorizing and reproducing methods whereby the message can be passed from generation to generation with little or no corruption. The origin of the universe as revealed by the great sages is as follows. The universe passes, alternately, through two phases know as ‘Saprapancha’ (universe comprising of matter) and ‘Nishprapancha’ (state of vacuum). Prior to the collapse of the universe, in the past, it had names and forms. The material world possessing the five qualities of sound, touch, form, taste and smell, merged into ‘Avyakta’ (un-explicable vacuum), this vacuum then merged into ‘Brahman’. Brahman cannot be characterized by world, and the world is only an appearance of Brahman. The universe is set for the mainly in a negative form, showing thereby that our empirical categories and limiting concepts are not applicable to ‘Brahman’. Sense qualities, beginning and end, above or below, inside or outside do not apply.
The hymns of the Veda are the sacrificial compositions of a primitive and still barbarous race written around a system of ceremonial and propitiatory rites, addressed to personified Powers of Nature. Yet these obscure and barbarous compositions have had the most splendid good fortune in all literary history. They have been the reputed source not only of some of the world’s richest and profoundest religions, but of some of its subtlest metaphysical philosophies. The name borne by them was Veda, the knowledge, - the received name for the highest spiritual truth of which the human mind is capable.
The true foundation or starting-point of the later religions and philosophies is the Upanishads, which have then to be conceived as a revolt of philosophical and speculative minds against the ritualistic materialism of the Vedas.
In the Isha Upanishad we find an appeal to Surya as a God of revelatory knowledge by whose action we can arrive at the highest truth. This, too, is his function in the sacred Vedic formula of the Gayatri which was for thousands of years repeated by every Brahmin in his daily meditation; and we may note that this formula is a verse from the Rig-veda, from a hymn of the Rishi Vishwamitra.
In other Upanishads the Gods are clearly the symbols of sense-functions in man.
Veda, then, is the creation of an age anterior to our intellectual philosophies. The Rishi was not the individual composer of the hymn, but the seer (drasta) of an eternal truth and an impersonal knowledge. The language of Veda itself is sruti, a rhythm not composed by the intellect but heard.
From the historical point of view the Rig-veda may be regarded as a record of a great advance made by humanity by special means at a certain period of its collective progress.
The Brahmanas and the Upanishads are the record of a powerful revival which took the sacred text and ritual as a starting-point for a new statement of spiritual thought and experience.
For this reason, while the Upanishads are invaluable for the light they shed on the principal ideas and on the psychological system of the ancient Rishis, they help us as little as the Brahmanas in determining the accurate sense of the texts which they quote. Their real work was to found Vedanta rather than to interpret Veda. This great movement resulted in a new and more permanently powerful statement of thought and spirituality, Veda culminating in Vedanta. The text of the Veda which we possess has remained uncorrupted for over two thousand years.
Dayananda’s interpretation of the hymns is governed by the idea that the Vedas are a plenary revelation of religious, ethical and scientific truth. The Rigveda itself, indeed, asserts that the Gods are only different names and expressions of one universal Being who in His own reality transcends the universe. (Ref. 6, p 1-30)
That the ancient races were far more advanced in the physical science than is as yet recognized, may also be admitted. The Egyptians and Chaldeans, we now know, discovered much that has since been rediscovered by modern science and much also that has not been rediscovered. The ancient Indians were, at least, no mean astronomers and were always skilful physicians; nor do Hindu medicine and chemistry seem to have been of a foreign origin. It is possible that in other branches also of physical knowledge they were advanced even in early times (Ref. 6, p 30).
Agni in the Veda is always presented in the double aspect of force and light. For whether by day or night Agni shines out in the sacrifices; he is the guardian of the Truth. In the four verses of the opening hymn of the Veda we get the first indications of the principal ideas of the Vedic Rishis, - the conception of a Truth-Consciousness supramental and divine.
Vasistha makes it clear enough to us; for he says that these are the waters which Surya has formed by his rays and which, unlike earthly movements, do not limit or diminish the workings of Indra, the supreme Mind. They are, in other words, the waters of the Vast Truth. (Ref. 6, p 108)
Usha is described repeatedly as the Mother of the Cows. If then the cow is a Vedic symbol for the physical light or for spiritual illumination the phrase must either bear this sense that she is the mother or source of the physical rays of the daylight. We see in the Veda that Aditi, the Mother of the gods, is described both as the Cow and as the general Mother; she is the Supreme Light and all radiances proceed from her. Psychologically, Aditi is the supreme or infinite Consciousness. (Ref. 6, p 126)
Moreover, the conquest of the Light is only part of the great action of the Vedic sacrifice. The gods have to win by it all the boons (visva varya ) which are necessary for the conquest of immortality and the mergence of the hidden illuminations is only one of these. Force, the Horse, is as necessary as Light, the Cow; not only must Vala be reached and the light won from his jealous grasp, but Vritra must be slain and the waters released; the emergence of the shining herds means the rising of the Dawn and the Sun: (Ref 6, p 138)
The central conception of the Veda is the conquest of the Truth out of the darkness of Ignorance and by the conquest of the Truth & the conquest also of Immortality. For the Vedic rtam is a spiritual as well as a psychological conception. It is the true being, the true consciousness, the true delight of existence beyond this earth of body, this mid-region of vital force, this ordinary sky or heaven of mind. We have to cross beyond all these planes in order to arrive at the higher plane of that superconscient Truth which is the own home of the gods and the foundation of Immortality. This is the world of Swar, to which the Angirasas have found the path for their posterity. (Ref. 6, p 233)
In the beginning all this was Atman – one only, there was nothing else active. He bethought himself, “Let me now create world.” He created these worlds. He bethought himself “Here then are worlds. Let me now create the guardians of the worlds” From the waters themselves he drew forth the person and gave him a shape.
…………Let me create food for them. The food that was thus created wished to run away, the persons sought to size it with his speech. He could not grasp it with his speech. It he had grasped it with his speech, then by merely speaking of food one would have been satisfied.
He then sought to seize it with his breath,…sight….hearing,…skin….mind. He could not grasp with his breath, sight, hearing, skin, mind . If he had grasped it with these, then by merely breathing, seeing, hearing, skin, mind one would have been satisfied.
He then thought to seize it with his Spana (digestive breath). He got it. If is this breath that takes in food. It is this breath that lives on food. He (the Atman) bethought himself “Now can this thing (this person) live without me?” He then bethought himself, “…………….who am I? ( Aitareya Upanishad ). (Ref.6).
Yuga
At the time of creation of the present universe ‘Brahman’ merged into a ‘Bindu Roopa’. Nothing existed except this ‘Bindu’ (or singularity) which was also described as ‘Agnikunda’ (ball of fire). Like the unseen waves of a deep sea, the mystic force hidden in this ‘Point’ got excited by the will of God and started expanding into a space of triangular shape, creating simultaneously ‘Desa’, ‘Kala’, ‘Paristhiti’ respectively known as space, time and matter.(Ref.1,p.7).
This universe so-created consisted of two parts; ‘real’ and ‘unreal’. The unreal part is the matter comprising of ‘Pancha Bhoota’ or five gross elements referred to as ether, air, light , water and Earth. The real part comprises of the ‘Brahman’ and his manifested ‘souls’.
Lord ‘Brahma’ starts the life creation process in the day and destruction process during the night. For Him one day is one ‘Kalpa’ and one Kalpa is equivalent to fourteen ‘Manvantaras’ and one Manvantara is equal to seventy four cycles of the four ‘Yugas’. Each yuga has different time span.
Krita yuga = 17, 28,000 years
Treta yuga = 12, 96,000 years
Dwapara yuga = 8, 64,000 years
Kali yuga = 4, 32,000 years
----------------------
Total 43, 20,000 years
Seventy four cycles of these four yugas is one manvantara and fourteen manvantaras make one kalpa, day or night to the Lord. According to this, one full day (day + night) for the Lord is equal to 2X74X14X 43 ,20,000 years or 8.95 billion years. This tallies with the life span of our sun. As the Sun dies, the life process comes to an end in our Planet, but the life process starts once again as a new solar system is born. When hundred years to Lord ‘Brahma’ is completed, the universe starts collapsing. That is once in 327 trillion years. According to Hindu scriptures, the universe has birth, life and death with a cycle of repetition and there is no ambiguity as to whether the universe is expanding or contracting.
(Ref. 1, p 8 )
The origin of the Sun
The Virgo cluster has 2500 galaxies and our galaxy, the Milkyway has more than 200 billion stars and measures 100 million light years across. The sun is the only star that supports life on our planet Earth with its long life. The sun makes one complete revolution in the Milkyway once 108 years. The sun deserves to be worshipped as God, since we owe our existence to Him.
Man and God
Man is trying to solve the problems confronting humanity through the application of science and technology. Science and technology cannot provide us the basic needs for our survival like oxygen to breathe, water to drink and food to eat. These are the forms of energy and cannot be created by scientists. What science and technology can provide us are in the form comforts like communication, transport, and entertainment.
Most of the technological activities, man is actively pursuing in the present industrialized civilization, are against nature. The solution to one problem is giving rise to more problems. Let us understand the fact that more we try to go against nature, the more will we be pushed back sooner or later. The best thing we can do is to pursue more fundamental sciences and go slow in technology applications.
The ultimate goal of man is to find ways and means as how to sever the soul from matter. Just like the genes carry from one generation to another, the physical and behavioral characteristics of a person, the soul carries all the reflections of actions of a person from one life form to another determining his destiny.(Ref. 1 , p.84/85 ).
Forces of Nature
The basis for all the theories postulated about cosmology and atomic structure are the Newton’s laws of gravitation, Maxwell’s Laws of electromagnetism, Einstein’s theory of relativity and quantum mechanics (including quantum uncertainty, quantum electrodynamics and quantum chromodynamics) evolved from the fundamental ideas of Broglie, Schroedinger, Heisenberg, Paul Dirac and Weinberg. Scientists all over the world are working on the grand unified theory (GUT) which combines all the above theories. Their aim is to see whether there is a single super force that is manifesting itself as the four forces of nature; the gravitational force, the electromagnetic force, the weak force and the strong force.
Each force in nature acts upon a particle or matter through what are known as ‘Messenger’ particles. Gravitational force is supposed to be transmitted through ‘Gravitions’, while ‘Photon’ is the messenger particle for electro magnetic force ‘W’ and ‘Z’ particles transmit the weak force and finally ‘Gluons’ are supposed to be the carrier particles of the strong force. For most of the particles there exists an antiparticle.
Paul Dirac is the scientist who proved the existence of antimatter. It is proved that when matter is created from energy, antimatter is also created along with. According to latest theories on the big-bang model, both antimatter and matter were liberated from the energy source. The anti-matter must have annihilated the entire matter and present universe would not have been formed but for the release of one or two more particles for every thousand million of antiparticles. (Ref. 1, p 86-90)
According to the Hindu scriptures which is supposed to be at least 3500 years old, there exist in total seven forces in this universe. Each force field is named as ‘LOKA’. Thus the gravitational force is referred to as ‘BHOOLOKA’, the electrical force is ‘BHUVA LOKA’, the magnetic force as ‘SUVAR LOKA’, the nuclear force as ‘MAHAR LOKA’, the force behind the vibration of cosmic matter as ‘JNAMALOKA’, the force of consciousness as ‘TAPOLOKA’, and the force of Truth as ‘SATYALOKA’. Hindus (Brahmin community specifically) refer to these seven forces in their daily chores of worship. Hindus at large worship energy, matter and the seven forces as Gods and Goddesses in different forms and names. Everything that is taking place in this universe is governed by these seven forces of nature.
Scientists are sufficiently impressed by the way that the laws of nature hang together with remarkable harmony that they feel compelled to believe here is something behind it all. When scientists are discovering so many physical laws it is surprising to imagine as how these laws came into existence in the first place. (Ref. 1, p 98-99)
The impermanence of life of all living beings from the lowest form to the highest form naturally raised the question by man as to why he was laboriously made and had to vanish. Was man then, the victim of a fortuitous concourse of circumstances or was he planned to answer a scheme of nature. “Peace of mind” is yet another thing which cannot be provided by scientists. It has to be gained by oneself.
The recorded history of India began with the composition of the most ancient hymns of the Rigveda around 3100 B.C., when the Aryans made their first appearance in India. The composition of these hymns and the later Vedic literature, together with a floating literature of a secular genre called Purana, continued for a period of about 2500 years till the dawn of new era with the birth of Gautama Budda in 624 B.C.
The literature of ancient India can be divided into two classes, the religious and the secular. The religious literature, which is more and has been more carefully preserved, is called the Vedic literature. In chronological order it consists of the Samhita, Brahmanas and Upanishads.
Vedic Literature
The four Vedas, Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda, are called Samhitas or collections, and consist for the most part of prayers addressed to gods. The most ancient as well as the most important of these Samhitas is the Rigveda. The period during which most of its hyms were composed is called the Rigvedic period. This period began somewhere near the beginning of the third millennium B.C. and lasted roughly up to 2000 B.C. The three later Vedas are the Samveda, the Yajurveda and the Atharvaveda.
The Samhitas were followed by works called the Brahmanas which deal with the sacrificial ceremony. Each Veda has it’s own Brahmanas.
The last division of the Vedic literature are the Upanissads and Aranyakas which are the sources of the great Vedanta Philosophy. The principal Upanisads are the Aitareya, the Kausitaki, the Chandogya, the Isa, the Brhadaranyaka, the Mundaka, the Prasna , the Aranyaka , the Kathaponishad and the Mandukya Upanisads.
The period when the vast Brahmana and Upanisad literature was composed lasted for about five hundred years, roughly from 1100 B.C to 600 B.C. this period is called the period of the Brahamanas and Upanisads. The works belonging to this period, particularly the Aitareya and the Satapatha Brahmanas, contain much historical information of the period when they were composed as well as of the Rigvedic and the later Vedic periods.
The Vedic literature was followed by the Vedangas which are six viz. siksa or phonetics, vyakarana or grammar, nirukta or etymology , chhandas or metrics, jyotisa or astronomy and kalpa or ritual. The words written on these subjects are called vedangas because they were originally composed as auxiliary for the study of the Vedas.
The foregoing literature was composed by learned Brahmans and is (with the exception of the first five Vedangas) of a religious character. Besides this literature there was also a secular literature of a floating nature called Purana. This Purana was in the charge of Sutas or bard attached to the royal courts and dealt with the genealogies and achievements of the kings to whose courts the Sutas were attached. The successors of this Purana in a very late and corrupt form are the present Puranas which are eighteen in number. (Ref. 4, p 1-4)
Vedic Science
The reconstructions of our earliest science are based not only on the Vedas but also on their appendices called the Vedangas. Briefly, the texts present a tripartite and recursive world view. The universe is viewed as three regions of earth, space, and sky with the corresponding entities of Agni, Indra, and Vishve Devah (all gods).
In Vedic ritual the three regions are assigned different fire altars. Furthermore, the five categories are represented in terms of altars of five layers. The great altars were built of a thousand bricks to a variety of dimensions which coded astronomical knowledge.
In the Vedic world view, the processes in the sky, on earth, and within the mind are taken to be connected. The Vedic rishis were aware that all descriptions of the universe lead to logical paradox. The one category transcending all oppositions was termed Brahman. Understanding the nature of consciousness was of paramount importance in this did not mean that other sciences were ignored. Vedic ritual was a symbolic retelling of this world view.
Chronology
To place Vedic science in context it is necessary to have a proper understanding of the chronology of the Vedic literature. There are astronomical references in the Vedas which recall events in the third or the fourth millennium BC and earlier. The recent discovery that Sarasvati, the preeminent river of the Rigvedic times, went dry around 1900 BC due to tectonic updated prior to this epoch. Traditionally, Rigveda is taken to be prior to 3100 BC ( Ref.13 )
Vedic cognitive science
The Rigveda speaks of cosmic order. It is assumed that there exist equivalences of various kinds between the outer and the inner worlds. It is these connections that make it possible for our minds to comprehend the universe. It is noteworthy that the analytical methods are used both in the examination of the outer and inner world. This allowed the Vedic Rishis to place in sharp focus paradoxical aspects of analytical knowledge. Such paradoxes have become only too familiar to the contemporary scientist in all branches of inquiry.
In the Vedic view, the complementary nature of the mind and the outer world, is of fundamental significance. Knowledge is classified in two ways: the lower or dual; and the higher or unified. What this means is that knowledge is superficially dual and paradoxical but at a deeper level it has a unity. The Vedic view claims that the material and the conscious are aspects of the same transcendental reality.
The idea of complementarities was at the basis of the systematization of Indian philosophic traditions as well, so that complementary approaches were paired together. We have the groups of: logic (nyaya), and physics (vaisheshika), cosmology (sankhya) and psychology (yoga), and language (mimamsa) and reality (Vedanta). Although these philosophical schools were formalized in the post-Vedic age, we find an echo of these ideas in the Vedic texts.
In the Rigveda there is reference to the yoking of the horses to the chariot of Indra, Ashvins, or Agni; and we are told elsewhere that these gods represent the essential mind. The same metaphor of the chariot for a person is encountered in Katha Upanishad and the Bhagavad Gita; this chariot is pulled in different directions by the horses, representing senses, which are yoked to it. The mind is the driver who holds the reins to these horses; but next to the mind sits the true observer, the self, who represents a universal unity. Without this self no coherent behavior is possible. In the Taittiriya Upanishad, the individual is represented in terms of five different sheaths or levels that enclose the individual’s self.
The Sankhya and the yoga systems take the mind as consisting of five components: manas, ahankara, chitta, buddhi, and atman. Manas is the lower mind which collects sense impressions. Its perceptions shift from moment to moment. This sensory-motor mind obtains its inputs from the senses of hearing, touch, sight, taste, and smell. Each of these senses may be taken to be governed by a separate agent. Ahankara is the sense of I-ness that associates some perceptions to a subjective and personal experience. Once sensory impressions have been related to I-ness by ahankar, their evaluation and resulting decisions are arrived at by buddhi, the intellect, Manas, ahankara, and buddhi are collectively called the internal instruments of the mind.
Chitta is the memory bank of the mind. These memories constitute the foundation on which the rest of the mind operates. But Chitta is not merely a passive instrument. The organization of the new impressions flows up instruction of primitive urges which creates different emotional states.
This mental complex surrounds the innermost aspect of consciousness which is called atman, the self, Brahman, or jiva. Atman is considered to be beyond a finite enumeration of categories ( Ref.13).
Origin of Universe in Vedas
Let us now look into what was presented about the origin of universe, in the ‘Vedas’ comprise of ‘Samhitas’ , ‘Brahmanas’, ‘ Aranyakas’ and ‘Upanishads’ which are considered to be direct revelations from God to sages like Hayagriva and Agastya, embodying the supreme truth that could not be gained by any effort of human mind. In ancient times in the absence of any script, it is interesting to observe how the purity of the Vedas has been retained without much corruption. This aspect was supposed to have been taken care by the sages by inventing at least four types of memorizing and reproducing methods whereby the message can be passed from generation to generation with little or no corruption. The origin of the universe as revealed by the great sages is as follows. The universe passes, alternately, through two phases know as ‘Saprapancha’ (universe comprising of matter) and ‘Nishprapancha’ (state of vacuum). Prior to the collapse of the universe, in the past, it had names and forms. The material world possessing the five qualities of sound, touch, form, taste and smell, merged into ‘Avyakta’ (un-explicable vacuum), this vacuum then merged into ‘Brahman’. Brahman cannot be characterized by world, and the world is only an appearance of Brahman. The universe is set for the mainly in a negative form, showing thereby that our empirical categories and limiting concepts are not applicable to ‘Brahman’. Sense qualities, beginning and end, above or below, inside or outside do not apply.
The hymns of the Veda are the sacrificial compositions of a primitive and still barbarous race written around a system of ceremonial and propitiatory rites, addressed to personified Powers of Nature. Yet these obscure and barbarous compositions have had the most splendid good fortune in all literary history. They have been the reputed source not only of some of the world’s richest and profoundest religions, but of some of its subtlest metaphysical philosophies. The name borne by them was Veda, the knowledge, - the received name for the highest spiritual truth of which the human mind is capable.
The true foundation or starting-point of the later religions and philosophies is the Upanishads, which have then to be conceived as a revolt of philosophical and speculative minds against the ritualistic materialism of the Vedas.
In the Isha Upanishad we find an appeal to Surya as a God of revelatory knowledge by whose action we can arrive at the highest truth. This, too, is his function in the sacred Vedic formula of the Gayatri which was for thousands of years repeated by every Brahmin in his daily meditation; and we may note that this formula is a verse from the Rig-veda, from a hymn of the Rishi Vishwamitra.
In other Upanishads the Gods are clearly the symbols of sense-functions in man.
Veda, then, is the creation of an age anterior to our intellectual philosophies. The Rishi was not the individual composer of the hymn, but the seer (drasta) of an eternal truth and an impersonal knowledge. The language of Veda itself is sruti, a rhythm not composed by the intellect but heard.
From the historical point of view the Rig-veda may be regarded as a record of a great advance made by humanity by special means at a certain period of its collective progress.
The Brahmanas and the Upanishads are the record of a powerful revival which took the sacred text and ritual as a starting-point for a new statement of spiritual thought and experience.
For this reason, while the Upanishads are invaluable for the light they shed on the principal ideas and on the psychological system of the ancient Rishis, they help us as little as the Brahmanas in determining the accurate sense of the texts which they quote. Their real work was to found Vedanta rather than to interpret Veda. This great movement resulted in a new and more permanently powerful statement of thought and spirituality, Veda culminating in Vedanta. The text of the Veda which we possess has remained uncorrupted for over two thousand years.
Dayananda’s interpretation of the hymns is governed by the idea that the Vedas are a plenary revelation of religious, ethical and scientific truth. The Rigveda itself, indeed, asserts that the Gods are only different names and expressions of one universal Being who in His own reality transcends the universe. (Ref. 6, p 1-30)
That the ancient races were far more advanced in the physical science than is as yet recognized, may also be admitted. The Egyptians and Chaldeans, we now know, discovered much that has since been rediscovered by modern science and much also that has not been rediscovered. The ancient Indians were, at least, no mean astronomers and were always skilful physicians; nor do Hindu medicine and chemistry seem to have been of a foreign origin. It is possible that in other branches also of physical knowledge they were advanced even in early times (Ref. 6, p 30).
Agni in the Veda is always presented in the double aspect of force and light. For whether by day or night Agni shines out in the sacrifices; he is the guardian of the Truth. In the four verses of the opening hymn of the Veda we get the first indications of the principal ideas of the Vedic Rishis, - the conception of a Truth-Consciousness supramental and divine.
Vasistha makes it clear enough to us; for he says that these are the waters which Surya has formed by his rays and which, unlike earthly movements, do not limit or diminish the workings of Indra, the supreme Mind. They are, in other words, the waters of the Vast Truth. (Ref. 6, p 108)
Usha is described repeatedly as the Mother of the Cows. If then the cow is a Vedic symbol for the physical light or for spiritual illumination the phrase must either bear this sense that she is the mother or source of the physical rays of the daylight. We see in the Veda that Aditi, the Mother of the gods, is described both as the Cow and as the general Mother; she is the Supreme Light and all radiances proceed from her. Psychologically, Aditi is the supreme or infinite Consciousness. (Ref. 6, p 126)
Moreover, the conquest of the Light is only part of the great action of the Vedic sacrifice. The gods have to win by it all the boons (visva varya ) which are necessary for the conquest of immortality and the mergence of the hidden illuminations is only one of these. Force, the Horse, is as necessary as Light, the Cow; not only must Vala be reached and the light won from his jealous grasp, but Vritra must be slain and the waters released; the emergence of the shining herds means the rising of the Dawn and the Sun: (Ref 6, p 138)
The central conception of the Veda is the conquest of the Truth out of the darkness of Ignorance and by the conquest of the Truth & the conquest also of Immortality. For the Vedic rtam is a spiritual as well as a psychological conception. It is the true being, the true consciousness, the true delight of existence beyond this earth of body, this mid-region of vital force, this ordinary sky or heaven of mind. We have to cross beyond all these planes in order to arrive at the higher plane of that superconscient Truth which is the own home of the gods and the foundation of Immortality. This is the world of Swar, to which the Angirasas have found the path for their posterity. (Ref. 6, p 233)
In the beginning all this was Atman – one only, there was nothing else active. He bethought himself, “Let me now create world.” He created these worlds. He bethought himself “Here then are worlds. Let me now create the guardians of the worlds” From the waters themselves he drew forth the person and gave him a shape.
…………Let me create food for them. The food that was thus created wished to run away, the persons sought to size it with his speech. He could not grasp it with his speech. It he had grasped it with his speech, then by merely speaking of food one would have been satisfied.
He then sought to seize it with his breath,…sight….hearing,…skin….mind. He could not grasp with his breath, sight, hearing, skin, mind . If he had grasped it with these, then by merely breathing, seeing, hearing, skin, mind one would have been satisfied.
He then thought to seize it with his Spana (digestive breath). He got it. If is this breath that takes in food. It is this breath that lives on food. He (the Atman) bethought himself “Now can this thing (this person) live without me?” He then bethought himself, “…………….who am I? ( Aitareya Upanishad ). (Ref.6).
Yuga
At the time of creation of the present universe ‘Brahman’ merged into a ‘Bindu Roopa’. Nothing existed except this ‘Bindu’ (or singularity) which was also described as ‘Agnikunda’ (ball of fire). Like the unseen waves of a deep sea, the mystic force hidden in this ‘Point’ got excited by the will of God and started expanding into a space of triangular shape, creating simultaneously ‘Desa’, ‘Kala’, ‘Paristhiti’ respectively known as space, time and matter.(Ref.1,p.7).
This universe so-created consisted of two parts; ‘real’ and ‘unreal’. The unreal part is the matter comprising of ‘Pancha Bhoota’ or five gross elements referred to as ether, air, light , water and Earth. The real part comprises of the ‘Brahman’ and his manifested ‘souls’.
Lord ‘Brahma’ starts the life creation process in the day and destruction process during the night. For Him one day is one ‘Kalpa’ and one Kalpa is equivalent to fourteen ‘Manvantaras’ and one Manvantara is equal to seventy four cycles of the four ‘Yugas’. Each yuga has different time span.
Krita yuga = 17, 28,000 years
Treta yuga = 12, 96,000 years
Dwapara yuga = 8, 64,000 years
Kali yuga = 4, 32,000 years
----------------------
Total 43, 20,000 years
Seventy four cycles of these four yugas is one manvantara and fourteen manvantaras make one kalpa, day or night to the Lord. According to this, one full day (day + night) for the Lord is equal to 2X74X14X 43 ,20,000 years or 8.95 billion years. This tallies with the life span of our sun. As the Sun dies, the life process comes to an end in our Planet, but the life process starts once again as a new solar system is born. When hundred years to Lord ‘Brahma’ is completed, the universe starts collapsing. That is once in 327 trillion years. According to Hindu scriptures, the universe has birth, life and death with a cycle of repetition and there is no ambiguity as to whether the universe is expanding or contracting.
(Ref. 1, p 8 )
The origin of the Sun
The Virgo cluster has 2500 galaxies and our galaxy, the Milkyway has more than 200 billion stars and measures 100 million light years across. The sun is the only star that supports life on our planet Earth with its long life. The sun makes one complete revolution in the Milkyway once 108 years. The sun deserves to be worshipped as God, since we owe our existence to Him.
Man and God
Man is trying to solve the problems confronting humanity through the application of science and technology. Science and technology cannot provide us the basic needs for our survival like oxygen to breathe, water to drink and food to eat. These are the forms of energy and cannot be created by scientists. What science and technology can provide us are in the form comforts like communication, transport, and entertainment.
Most of the technological activities, man is actively pursuing in the present industrialized civilization, are against nature. The solution to one problem is giving rise to more problems. Let us understand the fact that more we try to go against nature, the more will we be pushed back sooner or later. The best thing we can do is to pursue more fundamental sciences and go slow in technology applications.
The ultimate goal of man is to find ways and means as how to sever the soul from matter. Just like the genes carry from one generation to another, the physical and behavioral characteristics of a person, the soul carries all the reflections of actions of a person from one life form to another determining his destiny.(Ref. 1 , p.84/85 ).
Forces of Nature
The basis for all the theories postulated about cosmology and atomic structure are the Newton’s laws of gravitation, Maxwell’s Laws of electromagnetism, Einstein’s theory of relativity and quantum mechanics (including quantum uncertainty, quantum electrodynamics and quantum chromodynamics) evolved from the fundamental ideas of Broglie, Schroedinger, Heisenberg, Paul Dirac and Weinberg. Scientists all over the world are working on the grand unified theory (GUT) which combines all the above theories. Their aim is to see whether there is a single super force that is manifesting itself as the four forces of nature; the gravitational force, the electromagnetic force, the weak force and the strong force.
Each force in nature acts upon a particle or matter through what are known as ‘Messenger’ particles. Gravitational force is supposed to be transmitted through ‘Gravitions’, while ‘Photon’ is the messenger particle for electro magnetic force ‘W’ and ‘Z’ particles transmit the weak force and finally ‘Gluons’ are supposed to be the carrier particles of the strong force. For most of the particles there exists an antiparticle.
Paul Dirac is the scientist who proved the existence of antimatter. It is proved that when matter is created from energy, antimatter is also created along with. According to latest theories on the big-bang model, both antimatter and matter were liberated from the energy source. The anti-matter must have annihilated the entire matter and present universe would not have been formed but for the release of one or two more particles for every thousand million of antiparticles. (Ref. 1, p 86-90)
According to the Hindu scriptures which is supposed to be at least 3500 years old, there exist in total seven forces in this universe. Each force field is named as ‘LOKA’. Thus the gravitational force is referred to as ‘BHOOLOKA’, the electrical force is ‘BHUVA LOKA’, the magnetic force as ‘SUVAR LOKA’, the nuclear force as ‘MAHAR LOKA’, the force behind the vibration of cosmic matter as ‘JNAMALOKA’, the force of consciousness as ‘TAPOLOKA’, and the force of Truth as ‘SATYALOKA’. Hindus (Brahmin community specifically) refer to these seven forces in their daily chores of worship. Hindus at large worship energy, matter and the seven forces as Gods and Goddesses in different forms and names. Everything that is taking place in this universe is governed by these seven forces of nature.
Scientists are sufficiently impressed by the way that the laws of nature hang together with remarkable harmony that they feel compelled to believe here is something behind it all. When scientists are discovering so many physical laws it is surprising to imagine as how these laws came into existence in the first place. (Ref. 1, p 98-99)
The impermanence of life of all living beings from the lowest form to the highest form naturally raised the question by man as to why he was laboriously made and had to vanish. Was man then, the victim of a fortuitous concourse of circumstances or was he planned to answer a scheme of nature. “Peace of mind” is yet another thing which cannot be provided by scientists. It has to be gained by oneself.
III. Basics of Hindu Philosophy
There are six schools of thought on Hindu philosophy.
1. Vedanta philosophy founded by Vyas.
2. Mimansa (Commentary on vedant )
3. Nyaya – founded by Gautam
4. Sankhya – founded by Kapil
5. Vaisheshik – founded by Karnand
6. Yoga – founded by Patanjali
All except the Sankhya, proceed upon the supremacy of the four Vedas namely : Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda which are recognized both as eternal and as revealed. Vedas contain no philosophic discussion, being merely concerned with sacrificial rituals and hymns. All these systems exposed their principles in ‘Sutras’.
The essence of vedic doctrine, so far as it can be gathered from its disjointed references, is pantheism which simply means that God is the universal spirit. It is impassive and impersonal, unconscious, changeless and without any attributes. Three divergent philosophies fall under the vedantic system.
a) Advaita Philosophy (Monoism)
b) Davita (Dualism)
c) Vishist – Advaita (Qualified Monoism )
According to Advaita philosophy there is only one existence. It is non-dual , not two but one. Hindus say it is 1 (One ) , Buddhist say 0 (Zero). The ‘Brahman’ or supreme soul, and the world is an illusion (Maya) or if it exists it is not distinct from Brahman. The soul is identical with Brahman and is in fact Brahman Himself.
The Dvaita philosophy on the other hand postulates the dual existence of God and soul and also matter and what is more it regards every individual soul distinct and independent.
Intermediate school of thought ‘Vishist Advaita’ which denies Brahman is ‘Nirgun’ or devoid of attributes holding him omnipresent, omniscient and opposed to all evil. The world and the soul are separate emanation of Him. Matter and soul constitute the physical body. The eventual destination of soul is no doubt its union in Brahman.
The other systems of Hindu thought Nyaya and Vaisheshik , Yoga and Mimansa equally accept the same objective though they differ in details. The vaisheshik is the atomic school of thought and teaches that matter consists of atoms which are individually indestructible, though when combined, they are liable to decompose.
Whatever exists must either be bound or free and God can be neither. It is inconceivable that we should be bound or can He be free, since freedom implies the absence of desire and hence the impulse to create. Again if God is perfect He can have no need to create a world. A benevolent deity ought to create only happy creatures, not a mixed world like the one we see. There is no such thing as ‘Creator’ and the ‘Created’, the two are the same. (Ref. 1, p 109)
All that exists today is not real and shall perish one day. Only human beings have the ability to visualize the whole universe that is filled with matter. Matter is a form of energy and energy is the manifestation of super power. Nothing is permanent in this universe except the manifested part of the super energy that is present in each of us.
Ancient saints, through their meditation and mental faculties could visualize the universe created by God, but failed to explain in explicit terms as no scientific tools like quantum chromo dynamics (QCD) existed then. They named it Maya or Nescience. Knowledge of God through science can only convince an inquisitive mind. But it is still a long way before we completely understand about natural forces.
The Scientist, who can unravel the mysteries of all the natural forces and who finds a single universal force binding them, shall be the first to realize God through scientific pursuit.
The ‘Soul’ is the one that is responsible for the sustenance of energy for the life process. Sometimes it is described as life itself. It is the soul that differentiates living things from the non-living. In Bhagavd Gita, Lord Krishna describes the soul (Chapter II, Sloka 20-25).
Na Jayate Mriyate va kadachin
Nayang bhutwabhavita va na vuyah
Ajo nityang shashwatoyang Purano
Na hanyate hanyamane sharire “
( Chapter II, Sloka 20 )
“This Self is never born ; It never dies either. Having been born , It never ceases to be ,again. Unborn , eternal and everlasting , this ancient One is not slain when the body is slain.” ( Ref. 3 , p. 40 /41 ).
The sense is that the transformation of things known as birth does not happen to the Self. Similarly it does not die either. At no time whatsoever is It born , at no time whatsoever does It die and so on.
“ Vedavinashinang nityang ya enamajamabayyam
Kathansa purushanPartha kan ghatayati hanti kam” ( Chapter II, Sloka 21 )
“ How can a man , O Arjuna I who known It as the imperishable , the eternal , the unborn , the undecaying , cause anyone to be slain? Whom can be slain? ( Ref. 3 , p. 43 ).
“ Basansi Jirnani yatha vihaya
Nabani grihanti narohaparanee
Tatha shariranee vihaya jirna
Nanyani sanyati nabani dehi “ ( Chapter II, Sloka 22 )
“Just as a man puts on fresh clothes after discarding worn-out one , so does the embodied Self , discarding worn – out bodies , proceed to take up new ones.”
“ Nainang chhidanti Shastrani
Naining dahati Pavaka
Na’ chaining kledayantapo
Na’ Shoshanyati Marutah” ( Chapter II, Sloka 23 )
Weapons do not cut It ; fire does not burn It. Neither does water wet It ; nor does the wind dry It. ( Ref. 3, p. 50 ).
“ Achodhayamdahoyam kleddhoyashosya eva cha
Nityah sarvagatah sthanurchaloyan sanatanah “ ( Chapter II, Sloka 24 )
This Self cannot be cut , burned ,wetted or dried. Eternal , all-pervasive , stable , immovable and everlasting is It. ( Ref. 3, p. 51 ).
As the elements that ruin one another cannot destroy this Self, therefore It is eternal. Being eternal , It is all – pervasive. Being all-pervasive , It is stable like a pillar. Being stable, this Self is immovable. As such It is everlasting , i.e ancient , and not produced by any cause whatsoever. The sense is – It is ever new. ( Ref. 3, p. 51 ).
“ Avyoktoyamchintyoyamvikaryoyamuchyate
Tasmadevang viditayveyanang nanushochitumaharsi “ ( Chapter II, Sloka 25 )
The Self is said to be unmanifest , imponderable and immutable. Knowing It to be such , you ought not to grieve for It. . ( Ref. 3, p. 52 ).
Recent scientific advances, based on the newly emerging science “Bio-electrography”, are making the scientists believe that the human being is surrounded by an ‘energy field’ and he is more than a mere ‘Physical Body’. The ‘Yogis’ long ago described this as a sheath composed of ‘Prana’, the universal life force. The modern science of electrography now calls it as ‘Corona’. (Ref. 1,p 135)
According to Advaita philosophy God or the supreme energy that is responsible for the creation of the universe is only one. All the things we see are His manifestations. So God is everywhere. In scientific thinking also, we know energy and matter are interchangeable and all matter we see on Earth came from the energy state. According to science it is not fully established whether our universe is closed or open ended. But according to Indian philosophy the universe is closed. The universe is created and destroyed in a cyclic fashion, that is expansion and contraction of the universe. Since energy can neither be created nor destroyed, this energy simply changes into matter during the process of creation of the universe and manifests in different forms.
IV . Modern Science and Eastern Philosophy (Ref. 4)
We shall see how the two foundations of twentieth –century physics – quantum theory and relativity theory – both force us to see the world very much in the way a Hindu, Buddhist or Taoist sees it, and how this similarity strengthens when we look at the recent attempts to combine these two theories in order to describe the phenomena of the submicroscopic world: the properties and interactions of the subatomic particles of which all matter is made. Here the parallels between modern physics and Eastern mysticism are most striking, and we shall often encounter statements where it is almost impossible to say whether they have been made by physicists or by Eastern mystics.
The general notions about human understanding… which are illustrated by discoveries in atomic physics are not in the nature of things wholly unfamiliar, wholly unheard of, or new. In Buddhist and Hindu thought they have a considerable and central place. What we shall find is an exemplification, an encouragement, and a refinement of old wisdom - Julius Robert Oppenheimer (Ref. 4, p 16)
The great scientific contribution in theoretical physics that has come from Japan since the last war may be an indication of a certain relationship between philosophical ideas in the tradition of the Far East and the philosophical substance of quantum theory - Warner Heisenberg (Ref. 4, p 16)
The difference between Eastern and Western mysticism is that mystical schools have always played a marginal role in the West, whereas they constitute the mainstream of Eastern philosophical and religious thought.
Descartes’ famous sentence ‘Cogito ergo sum’ – ‘I think, therefore I exist’ – has led Western man to equate his identity with his mind, instead of with his whole organism. As a consequence of the Cartesian division, most individuals are aware of themselves as isolated egos existing ‘inside’ their bodies. The mind has been separated from the body and given the futile task of controlling it, thus causing an apparent conflict between the conscious will and the involuntary instincts. (Ref. 4 )
In contrast to the mechanistic Western view, the Eastern view of the world is ‘organic. For the Eastern mystic, all things and events perceived by the senses are interrelated, connected, and are but different aspects or manifestations of the same ultimate reality.
The highest aim for their followers – whether they are Hindus, Buddhists or Taoists – is to become aware of the unity and mutual interrelation of all things, to transcend the notion of an isolated individual self and to identify themselves with the ultimate reality. The emergence of this awareness – known as ‘enlightenment’-is not only an intellectual act but is an experience which involves the whole person and is religious in its ultimate nature. For this reason, most Eastern philosophies are essentially religious philosophies.
The Eastern world view is therefore intrinsically dynamic and contains time and change as essential features. The cosmos is seen as one inseparable reality – for ever in motion, alive, organic; spiritual and material at the same time. (Ref. 3, p 27)
Throughout history, it has been recognized that the human mind is capable of two kinds of knowledge, or two modes of consciousness, which have often been termed the rational and the intuitive, and have traditionally been associated with science and religion, respectively. In the West, the intuitive, religious type of knowledge is often devalued in favour of rational, scientific knowledge, whereas the traditional Eastern attitude in general just the opposite. (Ref. 3, p 27)
The Upanishads, for example, speak about a higher and a lower knowledge and associate the lower knowledge with various science, the higher with religious awareness.
Upanishads are the revelations vouchsafed not to a single prophet but to the Seers of a whole age, which is one of the most brilliant in the annals of mankind.
It is well-known that the Upanishads constitute the last phase of the Vedic revelation. The Mantras constitute the first phase, the Brahmanas the second, the Aranyakas the third, and the Upanishads the fourth and the last. Thus the Upanishads come at the end of the Veda and hence the teachings they embody are known as the Vedanta.
All the Upanisads exhaust themselves simply by determining the true nature of the Self, and the Gita and the scriptures dealing with moksa (the emancipation of the soul) have only this end in view.
It is unmoving, one, and faster than the mind. The sense could not overtake It, since It had run ahead. Remaining stationary, It outruns all other runners. It being there , Matarisva allots (or supports) all activities . (Ref. 5, p 10) (Isa - Upanishad, 4)
How can there be such contradictory statements that It is constant and motionless, and yet faster than the mind. There is no inconsistency, for this is possible from the standpoint of the states of being conditioned and unconditioned.
To Upanishadic Seers God was not a mere traditional symbol or a vague hypothesis, but a living and burning experience. They see Him everywhere-in the wide expanse of the universe, in the phenomena of Nature around them and in the secret chambers of men’s hearts. They exclaim:
“The Infinite is below; He is above; He is behind; He is in front! He is to the south; He is to the north; He is indeed all this”. (Ref. 8, p 1 & 3)
Already in the hymns of the Rig Veda we notice here and there a shift of emphasis from the multitudinous Gods to the one Infinite ( Pane theism ), as in the famous oft-quoted passage – Ekam Sat, vipra bahudha vadanti. (“Reality is one; the wise speak of it in different ways.”) This becomes more pronounced in the Upanishads (Ref. 8, p 4). Thus in the Upanishads the gods fade away and their place is taken by the one infinite Brahman or Atman.
But the rest are obviously the results of the primitive scientific thought of the time. We may ask ourselves whether after three thousand years of scientific knowledge we are now in any better position to describe the origin of the universe. Man can only theorize about it. And he has done so in all ages. But the truth is still far away.
Commenting on a verse in the Mandukya Upanishad, Dr. Radhakrishnan remarks that it is the first time in the history of thought that the distinction between the Absolute and God-between Brahman and Isvara –is elaborated. Isvara is God in relation to the universe and viewed through human spectales, whereas Brahman is God as He is in Himself viewed independently. In later Vedantic literature the two are often spoken of as Saguna Brahman and Nirguna Brahman.
If the Absolute were a mere void how could the universe arise out of it as the Upanishads say it does ? Mundakopanishad, for instance, says: “That which cannot be seen or grasped, which has neither origin nor properties, which has neither eyes nor ears, neither hands nor feet, which is eternal, all –pervading, omnipresent and extremely subtle – that is the Imperishable which the sages regard as the origin of all beings’. (Ref. 5, p 9 & 10)
We construct a paradigm of reality in which things are reduced to their general outlines. Rational knowledge is thus a system of abstract concepts and symbols, characterized by the linear, sequential structure which is typical of our thinking and speaking.
The natural world , on the other hand, is one of infinite varieties and complexities, a multidimensional world which contains no straight lines or completely regular shapes, where things do not happen in sequences, but all together; a world where –as modern physics tell us – even empty space is curved.
The Eastern mystics repeatedly insist on the fact that the ultimate reality can never be an object of reasoning or of demonstrable knowledge. It can never be adequately described by words, because it lies beyond the realms of the senses and of the intellect from which our words and concepts are derived. (Ref. 3, p 29) The Upanishads say about it: (Ref. 5, p 10, 15, 18, 52, 55, 57) Upanishads, together with the Gita which contains their essence, still remain the fountain head of all streams of religious and philosophic thought in our country.
“The eye does not go there, nor speech, nor mind. We do not know (Brahman to be such and such); hence we are not aware of any process of instructing about It”.
“That which is not uttered by speech, that by which speech is revealed, know that alone to be Brahman, and not what people worship as an object”.
“That which man does not comprehend with the mind, that by which, they say, the mind is encompassed, know that to be Brahman and not what people worship as an object”.
“That which man does not see with the eye, that by which man perceives the activities of the eye, know that alone to be Brahman and not what people worship as an object”.
“That which man does not hear with the ear, that by which man knows this ear, know that to be Brahman and not this that people worship as an object”.
“That which man does not smell with the organ of smell, that by which the organ of smell is impelled, know that to be Brahman and not what people worship as an object”.
Vedic text which says that ‘All transformation has speech as its basis, and it is name only, Earth (inhering in its modifications), as such, is the reality’ (Ch. VI. 1.4): similarly, existence (i.e. Brahman that permeates everything) alone is true (Ch. VI.ii.1). Brahman, then, is spatially infinite, being the cause of space etc. For space is known to be spatially infinite; and Brahman is the cause of that space. Hence it is proved that the Self is spatially infinite. Indeed, no all-pervading thing is seen in this world to originate from anything that is not so. Hence the spatial infinitude of Brahman is absolute. Similarly, temporally, too, Brahman’s infinitude is absolute, since Brahman is not a product. And because there is nothing different from Brahman, It is infinite substantially as well. Hence Its reality is absolute. (Ref. 5, p 320 )
Impelled and directed by whom does the mind light on its objects? Commanded by whom does the mind light on its objects? Commanded by whom does the first life-breath move forward? Prompted by whom do men utter this speech? And what god directs the eye and the ear? (Ref. 8, p 35)
“The eye does not go there, speech does not go, nor the mind. We do not know, we do not understand how we can instruct one about it”. (p .35 )
“That which is not thought by the mind, but that by which, they say, the mind is made to think-know that as Brahman, and not what people worship here”.
“That which is not seen by the eye, but that by which the eyes are made to see-know that as Brahman, and not what people worship here “.
“That which is not heard by the ear, but that by which the ears are made to hear-know that as Brahman, and not what people worship here”.
“That which is not inhaled by breath, but that by which breath is made to inhale- know that as Brahman, and not what people worship here”. (p 36)
“Beyond the senses there are the essences, beyond the essences there is the mind, beyond the mind there is the understanding, and beyond the understanding there is the great soul”.
“Beyond the great soul there is the unmanifest, and beyond the unmanifest there is the spirit. Beyond the spirit there is nothing – that is the end, that is the highest reach”.
“That which is without sound, without touch, without form, without decay and likewise without taste, without change, without smell, without beginning, without end, beyond the great, and ever-abiding-by realizing it one is freed from the jaws of death. ( p 54, 55)
His form is not to be seen, no one beholds Him with the eye. He is to be apprehended by the heart, by thought, by mind. Those who know Him thus become immortal. (p 63)
After that time, Kabandhi, son of Katya, approached him and asked, “Venerable Sir, whence are all these creatures born ?
To him he said, “The Lord of Creation, wishing to have offspring, brooded in thought. Having brooded in thought, he created a pair-matter and life-thinking that they would produce creatures for Him”.
The Bhargava of Vidarbha questioned him, “Sir, how many powers support a creature? How many illumine it, and which of them, again, is the most important?”
“But Life, the most important of them all, said to them, ‘Do not cherish this delusion. I alone, dividing myself into five, sustain and support this body’. They did not believe him. (p 66, 67)
Then Kausalya, son of Asvala, asked him – “Venerable Sir, whence is this life born? How does it come into the body? And how does it distribute itself and establish itself? In what way does it depart? How does it relate itself to what is external to the body and how to what is internal and spiritual ?”
“This life is born of the Self. As in the case of a man there is the shadow, so is this life connected with that Self. It comes into the body by the activity of the mind.
“The origin of Life, its coming, its staying, its five-fold extension and its relation to the Self-knowing these one obtains immortality.” (p 70, 72)
“That which cannot be seen or grasped, which has neither origin nor properties (and therefore can not be detected by any experiment whatsoever ) , which has neither eyes nor ears, neither hands nor feet, which is eternal, all –pervading omnipresent and extremely subtle-that is the Imperishable which the sages regard as the source of all beings.
“The Eternal broods and expands, and thence is produced matter, and from matter-life, mind, the elements, the worlds, and actions and their unfailing consequences. (p 73 )
The firm basis of knowledge on experience in Eastern mysticism suggests a parallel to the firm basis of scientific knowledge on experiment. This parallel is further enforced by the nature of the mystical experience. (Ref. 3, p 35).
The Scientists and the Yogi / Rishi, then, have developed highly sophisticated methods of observing nature which are inaccessible to the layperson. Eastern mysticism is based on direct insights into the nature of reality, and physics is based on the observation of natural phenomena in scientific experiments. In both fields, the observations are then interpreted and the interpretation is communicated by words. Since words are always an abstract, approximate map of reality, the verbal interpretations of a scientific experiment or of a mystical insight are necessarily inaccurate and incomplete. Modern physicists and Eastern mystics alike are well aware of this fact.
Mystics are mainly interested in the experience of reality and not in the description of this experience. They are therefore generally not interested in the analysis of such a description, and the concept of a well-defined approximation has thus never arisen in Eastern thought.
Indian mysticism and Hinduism in particular, clothes its statements in the form of myths, using metaphors and symbols, poetic images, similes and allegories. Mythical language is much less restricted by logic and common sense. (Ref. 3, p 43, 44)
The rich Indian imagination has created a vast number of gods and goddesses whose incarnations and exploits are the subjects of fantastic tales, collected in epics of huge dimensions. The Hindu with deep insight knows that all these gods are creations of the mind, mythical images representing the many faces of reality. On the other hand, he also knows that they were not merely created to make the stories more attractive, but are essential vehicles to convey the doctrines of a philosophy rooted in mystical experience.
The same idea about matter is conveyed, for example, to the Hindu by the cosmic dance of the god Shiva as to the physicist by certain aspects of quantum field theory. Both the dancing god and the physical theory are creations of the mind: models to describe their author’s intuition of reality. (Ref 3, p 45 )
It seems, then, that Eastern mystics and Western physicists went through similar revolutionary experiences which led them to completely new ways of seeing the world. In the following two passages, the European physicist Niels Bohr and the Indian mystic Sri Aurobindo both express the depth and the radical character of this experience. (Ref. 3)
The great extensions of our experience in recent years has brought to light the insufficiency of our simple mechanical conceptions and, as a consequence, has shaken the foundation on which the customary interpretation of observation was based - Niels Bohr
All things in fact begin to change their nature and appearance; one’s whole experience of the world is radically different. There is a new vast and deep way of experiencing, seeing, knowing, contacting things - Sri Aurobindo
According to relativity theory, space is not three-dimensional and time is not a separate entity. Both are intimately connected and form a four-dimensional continuum, ‘space-time’. In relativity theory, therefore, we can never talk about space without talking about time and vice versa. Furthermore, there is no universal flow of time as in the Newtonian model. Different observers will order events differently in time if they move with different velocities relative to the observed events.
The most important consequence of this modification is the realization that mass is nothing but a form of energy. Even an object at rest has energy stored in its mass, and the relation between the two is given by the famous equation E=mC², C being the speed of light.
The force of gravity, according to Einstein’s theory, has the effect of ‘curving, space and time. This means that ordinary Euclidean geometry is no longer valid in such a curved space.
At the subatomic level, matter does not exist with certainty at definite places, but rather shows ‘tendencies to exist’, and atomic events do not occur with certainty at definite time and in definite ways, but rather show ‘tendencies to occur’.
All the law of atomic physics are expressed in terms of these probabilities. We can never predict an atomic event with certainty; we can only say how likely it is to happen. Quantum theory has thus demolished the classical concepts of solid objects and of strictly deterministic laws of nature.
This means that the classical ideal of an objective description of nature is no longer valid. The Cartesian partition between the I and the world, between the observer and the observed, cannot be made when dealing with atomic matter.
The manifestation of Brahman in the human soul is called Atman and the idea that Atman and Brahman, the individual and ultimate reality, are one is the essence of the Upanishads:
That which is the finest essence – this world has that as its soul. That is Reality. That is Atman. That art thou. (Ref. 3, p 94) (Chandogya Upanishad 6.9.4)
God becomes the world which, in the end, becomes again God. This creative activity of the Divine is called Lila, the play. Maya in the Rig Veda, the word maya – one of the most important terms in Indian philosophy-has changed its meaning over the centuries. In the Hindu view of nature, then, all forms are relative, fluid and ever-changing Maya, conjured up by the great magician of the divine play. The world of Maya changes continuously, because the divine lila is a rhythmic, dynamic play.
All actions take place in time by the interweaving of the forces of nature, but the man lost in selfish delusion thinks that the himself is the actor. But the man who knows the relation between the forces of Nature and actions, sees how some forces of Nature work upon other forces of Nature, and becomes not their slave. (Bhagavad Gita 3.27 – 8 ) (Ref. 3, p 95).
To be free from the spell of Maya, to break the bonds of Karma means to realize that all the phenomena we perceive with our senses are part of the same reality. It means to experience, concretely and personally, that everything, including our own self, is Brahman. This experience is called Moksha , or liberation’ in Hindu philosophy and it is the very essence of Hinduism.
Contrary to most Western religions, sensuous pleasure has never been suppressed in Hinduism , because the body has always been considered to be an integral part of the human being and not separated from the spirit. The Hindu, therefore, does not try to control the desires of the body by the conscious will, but aims at realizing himself with his whole being, body and mind. (Ref.3, p 97)
As a man, when in the embrace of a beloved wife, knows nothing within or without, so this person, when in the embrace of the intelligent Soul, knows nothing within or without. ( Brihad – aranyaka Upanishad 4.3.21 )
Buddhist Philosophy
The first expounder of the Mahayana doctrine, and one of the deepest thinkers among the Buddhist patriarchs, was Ashvaghosha, who lived in the first century A.D. He spelled out the fundamental thoughts of Mahayana Buddhism.
Ashvaghosha probably had a strong influence on Nagarjuna, the most intellectual Mahayana philosopher, who used a highly sophisticated dialectic to show the limitations of all concepts of reality. With brilliant arguments he demolished the metaphysical propositions of his time and thus demonstrated that reality, ultimately, cannot be grasped with concepts and ideas. Hence, he gave it the name sunyata, ‘the void’, or ‘emptiness, a term which is equivalent to Ashvaghosha’s tathatatha, or ‘suchness’, when the futility of all conceptual thinking is recognized, reality is experienced as pure such -ness. (Ref.3, p 103)
Avatamsaka, one of the greatest scriptures produced by the Indian religious genius, whose central theme is the unity and interrelation of all things and events; a conception which is not only the very essence of the Eastern world view, but also one of the basic elements of the world view emerging from modern physics. It will therefore be seen that the Avatamsaka Sutra, this ancient religious text, offers the most striking parallels to the models and theories of modern physics. (Ref. 3, p 106)
The basic oneness of the universe is not only the central characteristic of the mystical experience, but is also one of the most important revelations of modern physics. It becomes apparent at the atomic level and manifests itself more and more as one penetrates deeper into matter, down into the realm of subatomic particles.
Quantum theory forces us to see the universe not as a collection of physical objects, but rather as a complicated web of relations between the various parts of a unified whole. (Ref. 3, p 142)
The material object becomes……. something different from what we now see, not a separate object on the background or in the environment of the rest of nature but an indivisible part and even in a subtle way an expression of the unity of all that we see. (Sri Aurobindo, The Synthesis of Yoga, p 993 ) This derive their being and nature by mutual dependence and are nothing in themselves. (Nagarjuna, Ref. 3 , p 142 ).
An elementary particle is not an independently existing un-analyzable entity. It is, in essence, a set of relationships that reach outward to other things. (Ref.3, p 143)
He on whom the sky, the earth, and the atmosphere
Are woven, and the wind, together with all life-breaths,
Him alone know as the one Soul. (Mundaka Upanishad 2.2.5)
V. Atomic Physics
In atomic physics, then, the scientist cannot play the role of a detached objective observer, but becomes involved in the world he observes to the extent that he influences the properties of the observed objects. John Wheeler sees this involvement of the observer as the most important feature of quantum theory and he has therefore suggested replacing the word ‘observer’ by the world ‘participator’.
The idea of ‘participation instead of observation’ has been formulated in modern physics only recently, but it is an idea which is well known to any student of mysticism. Mystical knowledge can never be obtained just by observation, but only by full participation with one’s whole being. (Ref. 3, p 146)
The Eastern mystics have pushed this notion to the extreme, to a point where observer and observed, subject and object, are not only inseparable but also become indistinguishable. The mystics, are not satisfied with a situation analogous to atomic physics, where the observer and the observed cannot be separated, but can still be distinguished. They go much further, and in deep meditation they arrive at a point where completely subject and object fuse into a unified undifferentiated whole.
Thus the Upanishads say (Ref. 3, p 146 )
“ Where there is a duality, as it were, there one sees another ; there one smells another; there one tastes another.. But where everything has become just one’s own self, then whereby and whom would one see? Then whereby and whom would one smell? Then whereby and whom would one taste ? “ ( Brihad – aranyaka Upanishad , 4.5.15)
Eastern mystics, on the other hand, seem to be able to experience a higher-dimensional reality directly and concretely. In the state of deep meditation , they can transcend the three-dimensional world of everyday life, and experience a totally different reality where all opposites are unified into an organic whole. When the mystics try to express this experience in words, they are faced with the same problems as the physicists trying to interpret the multidimensional reality of relativistic physics.
The four-dimensional world of relativity theory is not the only example in modern physics where seemingly contradictory and irreconcilable concepts are seen to be nothing more than different aspects of the same reality. Perhaps the most famous case of such a unification of contradictory concepts is that of the concept so particles and waves in atomic physics.
At the atomic level, matter has a dual aspect: it appears as particles and as waves. Which aspect it shows depends on the situation. In some situations the particle aspect is dominant, in others the particles behave more like waves; and this dual nature is also exhibited by light and all other electromagnetic radiation. Light, for example, is emitted and absorbed in the form of ‘quanta, or photons, but when these particles of light travel through space they appear as vibrating electric and magnetic fields which show all the characteristic behaviour of waves. Electrons are normally considered to be particles, and yet when a beam of these particles is sent through a small slit it is diffracted just like a beam of light-in other words electrons, too, behave like waves.
Particles moving in wave patterns do not exist in nature. In a water wave, for example, the water particles do not move along with the wave but move in circles as the wave passes by. Similarly, the air particles in a sound wave merely oscillate back and forth, but do not propagate along with the wave. What is transported along the wave is the disturbance causing the wave phenomenon, but not any material particle , In quantum theory , therefore , we do not speak about a particle’s trajectory when we say that the particle is also a wave.
We can never say that an atomic particle exists at a certain place, nor can we say that it does not exist.
If we ask, for instance, whether the position of the electron remains the same, we must say ‘no’, if we ask whether the electron’s position changes with time, we must say ‘no’, if we ask whether the electron is at rest, we must say ‘no’, if we ask whether it is in motion, we must say ‘no’ ( J.R.Openheimer , Science and common understanding , p 42-43 ,Ref. 3, p 157 ) .
The reality of the atomic physicist , like the reality of the Eastern mystic, transcends the narrow framework of opposite concepts. Oppenheimer’s words thus seem to echo the words of the Upanishads, ( Ref. 3 , p 158 )
It moves. It moves not
It is far, and It is near
It is within all this,
And it is outside of all this .(Isa-Upanishad).
Such- ness is neither that which is existence, nor that which is non-existence, nor that which is at once existence and non-existence, nor that which is not once existence and non-existence . (Ashvaghosa , Ref. 3,p158)
The important property of a wave packet now is that it has no definite wave length. If the wave packet does not have a well -defined wave length , the particle does not have a well-defined momentum. This means that there is not only an uncertainty in the particle’s position, corresponding to the length of the wave packet, but also an uncertainty in its momentum, caused by the spread in wavelength. The two uncertainties are interrelated.
The precise mathematical form of this relation between the uncertainties of position and momentum of a particle is known as Heisenberg’s uncertainty relation, or uncertainty principle. The fundamental importance of the uncertainty principle is that it expresses the limitations of our classical concepts in a atomic world appears as a web of relations between the various parts of a unified whole.
For a better understanding of this relation between pairs of classical concepts, Heisenberg considered the particle picture and the wave picture as two complementary descriptions of the same reality, each of them being only partly correct and having a limited range of application. Each picture is needed to give a full description of the atomic reality, and both are to be applied within the limitations given by the uncertainty principle.
In fact, the notion of complementarity’s proved to be extremely useful 2,500 years ago. It played an essential role in ancient Chinese thought which was based on the insight that opposite concepts stand in a polar – or complementary – relationship to each other. The Chinese sages represented this complementarity’s of opposites by the archetypal poles yin and yang and saw their dynamic interplay as the essence of all natural phenomena and all human situations.
Niels Bohr was well aware of the parallel between his concept of complementarity’s and Chinese thought. When he visited China in 1937, at a time when his interpretation of quantum theory had already been fully elaborated, he was deeply impressed by the ancient Chinese notion of polar opposites, and from that time he maintained an interest in Eastern culture.
Modern physics has confirmed most dramatically one of the basic ideas of Hindu Philosophy ; that all the concepts we use to describe nature are limited, that they are not features of reality, as we tend to believe, but creations of the mind; parts of the map, not of the territory. ( Ref. 3 , p 164 ) .It took an Einstein to make scientists and philosophers realize the geometry is not inherent in nature, but is imposed upon it by the mind.
Indian philosophy, unlike that of the Greeks, has always maintained that space and time are constructs of the mind. The Eastern philosophy treated them like all other intellectual concepts; as relative, limited, and illusory.
It was taught by the Buddha, oh Monks, that …the past, the future , physical space,.. and individuals are nothing but names, forms of thought , words of common usage, merely superficial realities. (The Central Philosophy of Buddhism – T.R.V.Murti , Ref. 3 , p169)
Thus the ancient Indian philosophers and scientists already had attitude which is so basic to relativity theory-that our notions of geometry are not absolute and unchangeable properties of nature, but intellectual constructions. In the words of Ashvaghosha. (Ref. 3 ).
“Be it clearly understood that space is nothing but a mode of particularization and that it has no real existence of its own… Space exists only in relation to our particularizing consciousness “(Ashvaghosa , The Awakening of Faith – D.T.Suzuki , Ref 3 , p170 )
There are six schools of thought on Hindu philosophy.
1. Vedanta philosophy founded by Vyas.
2. Mimansa (Commentary on vedant )
3. Nyaya – founded by Gautam
4. Sankhya – founded by Kapil
5. Vaisheshik – founded by Karnand
6. Yoga – founded by Patanjali
All except the Sankhya, proceed upon the supremacy of the four Vedas namely : Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda which are recognized both as eternal and as revealed. Vedas contain no philosophic discussion, being merely concerned with sacrificial rituals and hymns. All these systems exposed their principles in ‘Sutras’.
The essence of vedic doctrine, so far as it can be gathered from its disjointed references, is pantheism which simply means that God is the universal spirit. It is impassive and impersonal, unconscious, changeless and without any attributes. Three divergent philosophies fall under the vedantic system.
a) Advaita Philosophy (Monoism)
b) Davita (Dualism)
c) Vishist – Advaita (Qualified Monoism )
According to Advaita philosophy there is only one existence. It is non-dual , not two but one. Hindus say it is 1 (One ) , Buddhist say 0 (Zero). The ‘Brahman’ or supreme soul, and the world is an illusion (Maya) or if it exists it is not distinct from Brahman. The soul is identical with Brahman and is in fact Brahman Himself.
The Dvaita philosophy on the other hand postulates the dual existence of God and soul and also matter and what is more it regards every individual soul distinct and independent.
Intermediate school of thought ‘Vishist Advaita’ which denies Brahman is ‘Nirgun’ or devoid of attributes holding him omnipresent, omniscient and opposed to all evil. The world and the soul are separate emanation of Him. Matter and soul constitute the physical body. The eventual destination of soul is no doubt its union in Brahman.
The other systems of Hindu thought Nyaya and Vaisheshik , Yoga and Mimansa equally accept the same objective though they differ in details. The vaisheshik is the atomic school of thought and teaches that matter consists of atoms which are individually indestructible, though when combined, they are liable to decompose.
Whatever exists must either be bound or free and God can be neither. It is inconceivable that we should be bound or can He be free, since freedom implies the absence of desire and hence the impulse to create. Again if God is perfect He can have no need to create a world. A benevolent deity ought to create only happy creatures, not a mixed world like the one we see. There is no such thing as ‘Creator’ and the ‘Created’, the two are the same. (Ref. 1, p 109)
All that exists today is not real and shall perish one day. Only human beings have the ability to visualize the whole universe that is filled with matter. Matter is a form of energy and energy is the manifestation of super power. Nothing is permanent in this universe except the manifested part of the super energy that is present in each of us.
Ancient saints, through their meditation and mental faculties could visualize the universe created by God, but failed to explain in explicit terms as no scientific tools like quantum chromo dynamics (QCD) existed then. They named it Maya or Nescience. Knowledge of God through science can only convince an inquisitive mind. But it is still a long way before we completely understand about natural forces.
The Scientist, who can unravel the mysteries of all the natural forces and who finds a single universal force binding them, shall be the first to realize God through scientific pursuit.
The ‘Soul’ is the one that is responsible for the sustenance of energy for the life process. Sometimes it is described as life itself. It is the soul that differentiates living things from the non-living. In Bhagavd Gita, Lord Krishna describes the soul (Chapter II, Sloka 20-25).
Na Jayate Mriyate va kadachin
Nayang bhutwabhavita va na vuyah
Ajo nityang shashwatoyang Purano
Na hanyate hanyamane sharire “
( Chapter II, Sloka 20 )
“This Self is never born ; It never dies either. Having been born , It never ceases to be ,again. Unborn , eternal and everlasting , this ancient One is not slain when the body is slain.” ( Ref. 3 , p. 40 /41 ).
The sense is that the transformation of things known as birth does not happen to the Self. Similarly it does not die either. At no time whatsoever is It born , at no time whatsoever does It die and so on.
“ Vedavinashinang nityang ya enamajamabayyam
Kathansa purushanPartha kan ghatayati hanti kam” ( Chapter II, Sloka 21 )
“ How can a man , O Arjuna I who known It as the imperishable , the eternal , the unborn , the undecaying , cause anyone to be slain? Whom can be slain? ( Ref. 3 , p. 43 ).
“ Basansi Jirnani yatha vihaya
Nabani grihanti narohaparanee
Tatha shariranee vihaya jirna
Nanyani sanyati nabani dehi “ ( Chapter II, Sloka 22 )
“Just as a man puts on fresh clothes after discarding worn-out one , so does the embodied Self , discarding worn – out bodies , proceed to take up new ones.”
“ Nainang chhidanti Shastrani
Naining dahati Pavaka
Na’ chaining kledayantapo
Na’ Shoshanyati Marutah” ( Chapter II, Sloka 23 )
Weapons do not cut It ; fire does not burn It. Neither does water wet It ; nor does the wind dry It. ( Ref. 3, p. 50 ).
“ Achodhayamdahoyam kleddhoyashosya eva cha
Nityah sarvagatah sthanurchaloyan sanatanah “ ( Chapter II, Sloka 24 )
This Self cannot be cut , burned ,wetted or dried. Eternal , all-pervasive , stable , immovable and everlasting is It. ( Ref. 3, p. 51 ).
As the elements that ruin one another cannot destroy this Self, therefore It is eternal. Being eternal , It is all – pervasive. Being all-pervasive , It is stable like a pillar. Being stable, this Self is immovable. As such It is everlasting , i.e ancient , and not produced by any cause whatsoever. The sense is – It is ever new. ( Ref. 3, p. 51 ).
“ Avyoktoyamchintyoyamvikaryoyamuchyate
Tasmadevang viditayveyanang nanushochitumaharsi “ ( Chapter II, Sloka 25 )
The Self is said to be unmanifest , imponderable and immutable. Knowing It to be such , you ought not to grieve for It. . ( Ref. 3, p. 52 ).
Recent scientific advances, based on the newly emerging science “Bio-electrography”, are making the scientists believe that the human being is surrounded by an ‘energy field’ and he is more than a mere ‘Physical Body’. The ‘Yogis’ long ago described this as a sheath composed of ‘Prana’, the universal life force. The modern science of electrography now calls it as ‘Corona’. (Ref. 1,p 135)
According to Advaita philosophy God or the supreme energy that is responsible for the creation of the universe is only one. All the things we see are His manifestations. So God is everywhere. In scientific thinking also, we know energy and matter are interchangeable and all matter we see on Earth came from the energy state. According to science it is not fully established whether our universe is closed or open ended. But according to Indian philosophy the universe is closed. The universe is created and destroyed in a cyclic fashion, that is expansion and contraction of the universe. Since energy can neither be created nor destroyed, this energy simply changes into matter during the process of creation of the universe and manifests in different forms.
IV . Modern Science and Eastern Philosophy (Ref. 4)
We shall see how the two foundations of twentieth –century physics – quantum theory and relativity theory – both force us to see the world very much in the way a Hindu, Buddhist or Taoist sees it, and how this similarity strengthens when we look at the recent attempts to combine these two theories in order to describe the phenomena of the submicroscopic world: the properties and interactions of the subatomic particles of which all matter is made. Here the parallels between modern physics and Eastern mysticism are most striking, and we shall often encounter statements where it is almost impossible to say whether they have been made by physicists or by Eastern mystics.
The general notions about human understanding… which are illustrated by discoveries in atomic physics are not in the nature of things wholly unfamiliar, wholly unheard of, or new. In Buddhist and Hindu thought they have a considerable and central place. What we shall find is an exemplification, an encouragement, and a refinement of old wisdom - Julius Robert Oppenheimer (Ref. 4, p 16)
The great scientific contribution in theoretical physics that has come from Japan since the last war may be an indication of a certain relationship between philosophical ideas in the tradition of the Far East and the philosophical substance of quantum theory - Warner Heisenberg (Ref. 4, p 16)
The difference between Eastern and Western mysticism is that mystical schools have always played a marginal role in the West, whereas they constitute the mainstream of Eastern philosophical and religious thought.
Descartes’ famous sentence ‘Cogito ergo sum’ – ‘I think, therefore I exist’ – has led Western man to equate his identity with his mind, instead of with his whole organism. As a consequence of the Cartesian division, most individuals are aware of themselves as isolated egos existing ‘inside’ their bodies. The mind has been separated from the body and given the futile task of controlling it, thus causing an apparent conflict between the conscious will and the involuntary instincts. (Ref. 4 )
In contrast to the mechanistic Western view, the Eastern view of the world is ‘organic. For the Eastern mystic, all things and events perceived by the senses are interrelated, connected, and are but different aspects or manifestations of the same ultimate reality.
The highest aim for their followers – whether they are Hindus, Buddhists or Taoists – is to become aware of the unity and mutual interrelation of all things, to transcend the notion of an isolated individual self and to identify themselves with the ultimate reality. The emergence of this awareness – known as ‘enlightenment’-is not only an intellectual act but is an experience which involves the whole person and is religious in its ultimate nature. For this reason, most Eastern philosophies are essentially religious philosophies.
The Eastern world view is therefore intrinsically dynamic and contains time and change as essential features. The cosmos is seen as one inseparable reality – for ever in motion, alive, organic; spiritual and material at the same time. (Ref. 3, p 27)
Throughout history, it has been recognized that the human mind is capable of two kinds of knowledge, or two modes of consciousness, which have often been termed the rational and the intuitive, and have traditionally been associated with science and religion, respectively. In the West, the intuitive, religious type of knowledge is often devalued in favour of rational, scientific knowledge, whereas the traditional Eastern attitude in general just the opposite. (Ref. 3, p 27)
The Upanishads, for example, speak about a higher and a lower knowledge and associate the lower knowledge with various science, the higher with religious awareness.
Upanishads are the revelations vouchsafed not to a single prophet but to the Seers of a whole age, which is one of the most brilliant in the annals of mankind.
It is well-known that the Upanishads constitute the last phase of the Vedic revelation. The Mantras constitute the first phase, the Brahmanas the second, the Aranyakas the third, and the Upanishads the fourth and the last. Thus the Upanishads come at the end of the Veda and hence the teachings they embody are known as the Vedanta.
All the Upanisads exhaust themselves simply by determining the true nature of the Self, and the Gita and the scriptures dealing with moksa (the emancipation of the soul) have only this end in view.
It is unmoving, one, and faster than the mind. The sense could not overtake It, since It had run ahead. Remaining stationary, It outruns all other runners. It being there , Matarisva allots (or supports) all activities . (Ref. 5, p 10) (Isa - Upanishad, 4)
How can there be such contradictory statements that It is constant and motionless, and yet faster than the mind. There is no inconsistency, for this is possible from the standpoint of the states of being conditioned and unconditioned.
To Upanishadic Seers God was not a mere traditional symbol or a vague hypothesis, but a living and burning experience. They see Him everywhere-in the wide expanse of the universe, in the phenomena of Nature around them and in the secret chambers of men’s hearts. They exclaim:
“The Infinite is below; He is above; He is behind; He is in front! He is to the south; He is to the north; He is indeed all this”. (Ref. 8, p 1 & 3)
Already in the hymns of the Rig Veda we notice here and there a shift of emphasis from the multitudinous Gods to the one Infinite ( Pane theism ), as in the famous oft-quoted passage – Ekam Sat, vipra bahudha vadanti. (“Reality is one; the wise speak of it in different ways.”) This becomes more pronounced in the Upanishads (Ref. 8, p 4). Thus in the Upanishads the gods fade away and their place is taken by the one infinite Brahman or Atman.
But the rest are obviously the results of the primitive scientific thought of the time. We may ask ourselves whether after three thousand years of scientific knowledge we are now in any better position to describe the origin of the universe. Man can only theorize about it. And he has done so in all ages. But the truth is still far away.
Commenting on a verse in the Mandukya Upanishad, Dr. Radhakrishnan remarks that it is the first time in the history of thought that the distinction between the Absolute and God-between Brahman and Isvara –is elaborated. Isvara is God in relation to the universe and viewed through human spectales, whereas Brahman is God as He is in Himself viewed independently. In later Vedantic literature the two are often spoken of as Saguna Brahman and Nirguna Brahman.
If the Absolute were a mere void how could the universe arise out of it as the Upanishads say it does ? Mundakopanishad, for instance, says: “That which cannot be seen or grasped, which has neither origin nor properties, which has neither eyes nor ears, neither hands nor feet, which is eternal, all –pervading, omnipresent and extremely subtle – that is the Imperishable which the sages regard as the origin of all beings’. (Ref. 5, p 9 & 10)
We construct a paradigm of reality in which things are reduced to their general outlines. Rational knowledge is thus a system of abstract concepts and symbols, characterized by the linear, sequential structure which is typical of our thinking and speaking.
The natural world , on the other hand, is one of infinite varieties and complexities, a multidimensional world which contains no straight lines or completely regular shapes, where things do not happen in sequences, but all together; a world where –as modern physics tell us – even empty space is curved.
The Eastern mystics repeatedly insist on the fact that the ultimate reality can never be an object of reasoning or of demonstrable knowledge. It can never be adequately described by words, because it lies beyond the realms of the senses and of the intellect from which our words and concepts are derived. (Ref. 3, p 29) The Upanishads say about it: (Ref. 5, p 10, 15, 18, 52, 55, 57) Upanishads, together with the Gita which contains their essence, still remain the fountain head of all streams of religious and philosophic thought in our country.
“The eye does not go there, nor speech, nor mind. We do not know (Brahman to be such and such); hence we are not aware of any process of instructing about It”.
“That which is not uttered by speech, that by which speech is revealed, know that alone to be Brahman, and not what people worship as an object”.
“That which man does not comprehend with the mind, that by which, they say, the mind is encompassed, know that to be Brahman and not what people worship as an object”.
“That which man does not see with the eye, that by which man perceives the activities of the eye, know that alone to be Brahman and not what people worship as an object”.
“That which man does not hear with the ear, that by which man knows this ear, know that to be Brahman and not this that people worship as an object”.
“That which man does not smell with the organ of smell, that by which the organ of smell is impelled, know that to be Brahman and not what people worship as an object”.
Vedic text which says that ‘All transformation has speech as its basis, and it is name only, Earth (inhering in its modifications), as such, is the reality’ (Ch. VI. 1.4): similarly, existence (i.e. Brahman that permeates everything) alone is true (Ch. VI.ii.1). Brahman, then, is spatially infinite, being the cause of space etc. For space is known to be spatially infinite; and Brahman is the cause of that space. Hence it is proved that the Self is spatially infinite. Indeed, no all-pervading thing is seen in this world to originate from anything that is not so. Hence the spatial infinitude of Brahman is absolute. Similarly, temporally, too, Brahman’s infinitude is absolute, since Brahman is not a product. And because there is nothing different from Brahman, It is infinite substantially as well. Hence Its reality is absolute. (Ref. 5, p 320 )
Impelled and directed by whom does the mind light on its objects? Commanded by whom does the mind light on its objects? Commanded by whom does the first life-breath move forward? Prompted by whom do men utter this speech? And what god directs the eye and the ear? (Ref. 8, p 35)
“The eye does not go there, speech does not go, nor the mind. We do not know, we do not understand how we can instruct one about it”. (p .35 )
“That which is not thought by the mind, but that by which, they say, the mind is made to think-know that as Brahman, and not what people worship here”.
“That which is not seen by the eye, but that by which the eyes are made to see-know that as Brahman, and not what people worship here “.
“That which is not heard by the ear, but that by which the ears are made to hear-know that as Brahman, and not what people worship here”.
“That which is not inhaled by breath, but that by which breath is made to inhale- know that as Brahman, and not what people worship here”. (p 36)
“Beyond the senses there are the essences, beyond the essences there is the mind, beyond the mind there is the understanding, and beyond the understanding there is the great soul”.
“Beyond the great soul there is the unmanifest, and beyond the unmanifest there is the spirit. Beyond the spirit there is nothing – that is the end, that is the highest reach”.
“That which is without sound, without touch, without form, without decay and likewise without taste, without change, without smell, without beginning, without end, beyond the great, and ever-abiding-by realizing it one is freed from the jaws of death. ( p 54, 55)
His form is not to be seen, no one beholds Him with the eye. He is to be apprehended by the heart, by thought, by mind. Those who know Him thus become immortal. (p 63)
After that time, Kabandhi, son of Katya, approached him and asked, “Venerable Sir, whence are all these creatures born ?
To him he said, “The Lord of Creation, wishing to have offspring, brooded in thought. Having brooded in thought, he created a pair-matter and life-thinking that they would produce creatures for Him”.
The Bhargava of Vidarbha questioned him, “Sir, how many powers support a creature? How many illumine it, and which of them, again, is the most important?”
“But Life, the most important of them all, said to them, ‘Do not cherish this delusion. I alone, dividing myself into five, sustain and support this body’. They did not believe him. (p 66, 67)
Then Kausalya, son of Asvala, asked him – “Venerable Sir, whence is this life born? How does it come into the body? And how does it distribute itself and establish itself? In what way does it depart? How does it relate itself to what is external to the body and how to what is internal and spiritual ?”
“This life is born of the Self. As in the case of a man there is the shadow, so is this life connected with that Self. It comes into the body by the activity of the mind.
“The origin of Life, its coming, its staying, its five-fold extension and its relation to the Self-knowing these one obtains immortality.” (p 70, 72)
“That which cannot be seen or grasped, which has neither origin nor properties (and therefore can not be detected by any experiment whatsoever ) , which has neither eyes nor ears, neither hands nor feet, which is eternal, all –pervading omnipresent and extremely subtle-that is the Imperishable which the sages regard as the source of all beings.
“The Eternal broods and expands, and thence is produced matter, and from matter-life, mind, the elements, the worlds, and actions and their unfailing consequences. (p 73 )
The firm basis of knowledge on experience in Eastern mysticism suggests a parallel to the firm basis of scientific knowledge on experiment. This parallel is further enforced by the nature of the mystical experience. (Ref. 3, p 35).
The Scientists and the Yogi / Rishi, then, have developed highly sophisticated methods of observing nature which are inaccessible to the layperson. Eastern mysticism is based on direct insights into the nature of reality, and physics is based on the observation of natural phenomena in scientific experiments. In both fields, the observations are then interpreted and the interpretation is communicated by words. Since words are always an abstract, approximate map of reality, the verbal interpretations of a scientific experiment or of a mystical insight are necessarily inaccurate and incomplete. Modern physicists and Eastern mystics alike are well aware of this fact.
Mystics are mainly interested in the experience of reality and not in the description of this experience. They are therefore generally not interested in the analysis of such a description, and the concept of a well-defined approximation has thus never arisen in Eastern thought.
Indian mysticism and Hinduism in particular, clothes its statements in the form of myths, using metaphors and symbols, poetic images, similes and allegories. Mythical language is much less restricted by logic and common sense. (Ref. 3, p 43, 44)
The rich Indian imagination has created a vast number of gods and goddesses whose incarnations and exploits are the subjects of fantastic tales, collected in epics of huge dimensions. The Hindu with deep insight knows that all these gods are creations of the mind, mythical images representing the many faces of reality. On the other hand, he also knows that they were not merely created to make the stories more attractive, but are essential vehicles to convey the doctrines of a philosophy rooted in mystical experience.
The same idea about matter is conveyed, for example, to the Hindu by the cosmic dance of the god Shiva as to the physicist by certain aspects of quantum field theory. Both the dancing god and the physical theory are creations of the mind: models to describe their author’s intuition of reality. (Ref 3, p 45 )
It seems, then, that Eastern mystics and Western physicists went through similar revolutionary experiences which led them to completely new ways of seeing the world. In the following two passages, the European physicist Niels Bohr and the Indian mystic Sri Aurobindo both express the depth and the radical character of this experience. (Ref. 3)
The great extensions of our experience in recent years has brought to light the insufficiency of our simple mechanical conceptions and, as a consequence, has shaken the foundation on which the customary interpretation of observation was based - Niels Bohr
All things in fact begin to change their nature and appearance; one’s whole experience of the world is radically different. There is a new vast and deep way of experiencing, seeing, knowing, contacting things - Sri Aurobindo
According to relativity theory, space is not three-dimensional and time is not a separate entity. Both are intimately connected and form a four-dimensional continuum, ‘space-time’. In relativity theory, therefore, we can never talk about space without talking about time and vice versa. Furthermore, there is no universal flow of time as in the Newtonian model. Different observers will order events differently in time if they move with different velocities relative to the observed events.
The most important consequence of this modification is the realization that mass is nothing but a form of energy. Even an object at rest has energy stored in its mass, and the relation between the two is given by the famous equation E=mC², C being the speed of light.
The force of gravity, according to Einstein’s theory, has the effect of ‘curving, space and time. This means that ordinary Euclidean geometry is no longer valid in such a curved space.
At the subatomic level, matter does not exist with certainty at definite places, but rather shows ‘tendencies to exist’, and atomic events do not occur with certainty at definite time and in definite ways, but rather show ‘tendencies to occur’.
All the law of atomic physics are expressed in terms of these probabilities. We can never predict an atomic event with certainty; we can only say how likely it is to happen. Quantum theory has thus demolished the classical concepts of solid objects and of strictly deterministic laws of nature.
This means that the classical ideal of an objective description of nature is no longer valid. The Cartesian partition between the I and the world, between the observer and the observed, cannot be made when dealing with atomic matter.
The manifestation of Brahman in the human soul is called Atman and the idea that Atman and Brahman, the individual and ultimate reality, are one is the essence of the Upanishads:
That which is the finest essence – this world has that as its soul. That is Reality. That is Atman. That art thou. (Ref. 3, p 94) (Chandogya Upanishad 6.9.4)
God becomes the world which, in the end, becomes again God. This creative activity of the Divine is called Lila, the play. Maya in the Rig Veda, the word maya – one of the most important terms in Indian philosophy-has changed its meaning over the centuries. In the Hindu view of nature, then, all forms are relative, fluid and ever-changing Maya, conjured up by the great magician of the divine play. The world of Maya changes continuously, because the divine lila is a rhythmic, dynamic play.
All actions take place in time by the interweaving of the forces of nature, but the man lost in selfish delusion thinks that the himself is the actor. But the man who knows the relation between the forces of Nature and actions, sees how some forces of Nature work upon other forces of Nature, and becomes not their slave. (Bhagavad Gita 3.27 – 8 ) (Ref. 3, p 95).
To be free from the spell of Maya, to break the bonds of Karma means to realize that all the phenomena we perceive with our senses are part of the same reality. It means to experience, concretely and personally, that everything, including our own self, is Brahman. This experience is called Moksha , or liberation’ in Hindu philosophy and it is the very essence of Hinduism.
Contrary to most Western religions, sensuous pleasure has never been suppressed in Hinduism , because the body has always been considered to be an integral part of the human being and not separated from the spirit. The Hindu, therefore, does not try to control the desires of the body by the conscious will, but aims at realizing himself with his whole being, body and mind. (Ref.3, p 97)
As a man, when in the embrace of a beloved wife, knows nothing within or without, so this person, when in the embrace of the intelligent Soul, knows nothing within or without. ( Brihad – aranyaka Upanishad 4.3.21 )
Buddhist Philosophy
The first expounder of the Mahayana doctrine, and one of the deepest thinkers among the Buddhist patriarchs, was Ashvaghosha, who lived in the first century A.D. He spelled out the fundamental thoughts of Mahayana Buddhism.
Ashvaghosha probably had a strong influence on Nagarjuna, the most intellectual Mahayana philosopher, who used a highly sophisticated dialectic to show the limitations of all concepts of reality. With brilliant arguments he demolished the metaphysical propositions of his time and thus demonstrated that reality, ultimately, cannot be grasped with concepts and ideas. Hence, he gave it the name sunyata, ‘the void’, or ‘emptiness, a term which is equivalent to Ashvaghosha’s tathatatha, or ‘suchness’, when the futility of all conceptual thinking is recognized, reality is experienced as pure such -ness. (Ref.3, p 103)
Avatamsaka, one of the greatest scriptures produced by the Indian religious genius, whose central theme is the unity and interrelation of all things and events; a conception which is not only the very essence of the Eastern world view, but also one of the basic elements of the world view emerging from modern physics. It will therefore be seen that the Avatamsaka Sutra, this ancient religious text, offers the most striking parallels to the models and theories of modern physics. (Ref. 3, p 106)
The basic oneness of the universe is not only the central characteristic of the mystical experience, but is also one of the most important revelations of modern physics. It becomes apparent at the atomic level and manifests itself more and more as one penetrates deeper into matter, down into the realm of subatomic particles.
Quantum theory forces us to see the universe not as a collection of physical objects, but rather as a complicated web of relations between the various parts of a unified whole. (Ref. 3, p 142)
The material object becomes……. something different from what we now see, not a separate object on the background or in the environment of the rest of nature but an indivisible part and even in a subtle way an expression of the unity of all that we see. (Sri Aurobindo, The Synthesis of Yoga, p 993 ) This derive their being and nature by mutual dependence and are nothing in themselves. (Nagarjuna, Ref. 3 , p 142 ).
An elementary particle is not an independently existing un-analyzable entity. It is, in essence, a set of relationships that reach outward to other things. (Ref.3, p 143)
He on whom the sky, the earth, and the atmosphere
Are woven, and the wind, together with all life-breaths,
Him alone know as the one Soul. (Mundaka Upanishad 2.2.5)
V. Atomic Physics
In atomic physics, then, the scientist cannot play the role of a detached objective observer, but becomes involved in the world he observes to the extent that he influences the properties of the observed objects. John Wheeler sees this involvement of the observer as the most important feature of quantum theory and he has therefore suggested replacing the word ‘observer’ by the world ‘participator’.
The idea of ‘participation instead of observation’ has been formulated in modern physics only recently, but it is an idea which is well known to any student of mysticism. Mystical knowledge can never be obtained just by observation, but only by full participation with one’s whole being. (Ref. 3, p 146)
The Eastern mystics have pushed this notion to the extreme, to a point where observer and observed, subject and object, are not only inseparable but also become indistinguishable. The mystics, are not satisfied with a situation analogous to atomic physics, where the observer and the observed cannot be separated, but can still be distinguished. They go much further, and in deep meditation they arrive at a point where completely subject and object fuse into a unified undifferentiated whole.
Thus the Upanishads say (Ref. 3, p 146 )
“ Where there is a duality, as it were, there one sees another ; there one smells another; there one tastes another.. But where everything has become just one’s own self, then whereby and whom would one see? Then whereby and whom would one smell? Then whereby and whom would one taste ? “ ( Brihad – aranyaka Upanishad , 4.5.15)
Eastern mystics, on the other hand, seem to be able to experience a higher-dimensional reality directly and concretely. In the state of deep meditation , they can transcend the three-dimensional world of everyday life, and experience a totally different reality where all opposites are unified into an organic whole. When the mystics try to express this experience in words, they are faced with the same problems as the physicists trying to interpret the multidimensional reality of relativistic physics.
The four-dimensional world of relativity theory is not the only example in modern physics where seemingly contradictory and irreconcilable concepts are seen to be nothing more than different aspects of the same reality. Perhaps the most famous case of such a unification of contradictory concepts is that of the concept so particles and waves in atomic physics.
At the atomic level, matter has a dual aspect: it appears as particles and as waves. Which aspect it shows depends on the situation. In some situations the particle aspect is dominant, in others the particles behave more like waves; and this dual nature is also exhibited by light and all other electromagnetic radiation. Light, for example, is emitted and absorbed in the form of ‘quanta, or photons, but when these particles of light travel through space they appear as vibrating electric and magnetic fields which show all the characteristic behaviour of waves. Electrons are normally considered to be particles, and yet when a beam of these particles is sent through a small slit it is diffracted just like a beam of light-in other words electrons, too, behave like waves.
Particles moving in wave patterns do not exist in nature. In a water wave, for example, the water particles do not move along with the wave but move in circles as the wave passes by. Similarly, the air particles in a sound wave merely oscillate back and forth, but do not propagate along with the wave. What is transported along the wave is the disturbance causing the wave phenomenon, but not any material particle , In quantum theory , therefore , we do not speak about a particle’s trajectory when we say that the particle is also a wave.
We can never say that an atomic particle exists at a certain place, nor can we say that it does not exist.
If we ask, for instance, whether the position of the electron remains the same, we must say ‘no’, if we ask whether the electron’s position changes with time, we must say ‘no’, if we ask whether the electron is at rest, we must say ‘no’, if we ask whether it is in motion, we must say ‘no’ ( J.R.Openheimer , Science and common understanding , p 42-43 ,Ref. 3, p 157 ) .
The reality of the atomic physicist , like the reality of the Eastern mystic, transcends the narrow framework of opposite concepts. Oppenheimer’s words thus seem to echo the words of the Upanishads, ( Ref. 3 , p 158 )
It moves. It moves not
It is far, and It is near
It is within all this,
And it is outside of all this .(Isa-Upanishad).
Such- ness is neither that which is existence, nor that which is non-existence, nor that which is at once existence and non-existence, nor that which is not once existence and non-existence . (Ashvaghosa , Ref. 3,p158)
The important property of a wave packet now is that it has no definite wave length. If the wave packet does not have a well -defined wave length , the particle does not have a well-defined momentum. This means that there is not only an uncertainty in the particle’s position, corresponding to the length of the wave packet, but also an uncertainty in its momentum, caused by the spread in wavelength. The two uncertainties are interrelated.
The precise mathematical form of this relation between the uncertainties of position and momentum of a particle is known as Heisenberg’s uncertainty relation, or uncertainty principle. The fundamental importance of the uncertainty principle is that it expresses the limitations of our classical concepts in a atomic world appears as a web of relations between the various parts of a unified whole.
For a better understanding of this relation between pairs of classical concepts, Heisenberg considered the particle picture and the wave picture as two complementary descriptions of the same reality, each of them being only partly correct and having a limited range of application. Each picture is needed to give a full description of the atomic reality, and both are to be applied within the limitations given by the uncertainty principle.
In fact, the notion of complementarity’s proved to be extremely useful 2,500 years ago. It played an essential role in ancient Chinese thought which was based on the insight that opposite concepts stand in a polar – or complementary – relationship to each other. The Chinese sages represented this complementarity’s of opposites by the archetypal poles yin and yang and saw their dynamic interplay as the essence of all natural phenomena and all human situations.
Niels Bohr was well aware of the parallel between his concept of complementarity’s and Chinese thought. When he visited China in 1937, at a time when his interpretation of quantum theory had already been fully elaborated, he was deeply impressed by the ancient Chinese notion of polar opposites, and from that time he maintained an interest in Eastern culture.
Modern physics has confirmed most dramatically one of the basic ideas of Hindu Philosophy ; that all the concepts we use to describe nature are limited, that they are not features of reality, as we tend to believe, but creations of the mind; parts of the map, not of the territory. ( Ref. 3 , p 164 ) .It took an Einstein to make scientists and philosophers realize the geometry is not inherent in nature, but is imposed upon it by the mind.
Indian philosophy, unlike that of the Greeks, has always maintained that space and time are constructs of the mind. The Eastern philosophy treated them like all other intellectual concepts; as relative, limited, and illusory.
It was taught by the Buddha, oh Monks, that …the past, the future , physical space,.. and individuals are nothing but names, forms of thought , words of common usage, merely superficial realities. (The Central Philosophy of Buddhism – T.R.V.Murti , Ref. 3 , p169)
Thus the ancient Indian philosophers and scientists already had attitude which is so basic to relativity theory-that our notions of geometry are not absolute and unchangeable properties of nature, but intellectual constructions. In the words of Ashvaghosha. (Ref. 3 ).
“Be it clearly understood that space is nothing but a mode of particularization and that it has no real existence of its own… Space exists only in relation to our particularizing consciousness “(Ashvaghosa , The Awakening of Faith – D.T.Suzuki , Ref 3 , p170 )
Space and Time
The Hindu philosopher link the notions of both space and time to particular states of consciousness. Being able to go beyond the ordinary state through mediation, they have realized that the conventional notions of space and time are not the ultimate truth.
What , then, is this new view of space and time which emerged from relativity theory ? It is based on the discovery that all space and time measurements are relative.
The real revolution that came with Einstein’s ( also contributed by H.Minkowski) theory……. was the abandonment of the idea that the space-time coordinate system has objective significance as a separate physical entity. Instead of this idea, relativity theory implies of a language that is used by an observer to describe his environment . ( Space Time and Elementary Interactions in Relativity - .Sachs , Physics Today , Vol. 22,1969 , p 53) ( Ref. 3 ,p 173 ).
This statement from a contemporary physicist shows the similarity between the notions of space and time in modern physics and those held by the Eastern philosopher who say, as quoted before, that space and time ‘ are nothing but names, forms of thought, words of common usage’.
All these relativistic effects only seem strange because we cannot experience the four-dimensional space-time world with our senses, but can only observe its three- dimensional projections. These images have different aspects in different frames of reference; moving objects look different from objects at rest, and moving clocks run at a different rate. These effects will seem paradoxical if we do not realize that they are only the projections of four –dimensional phenomena, just as shadows are projections of three-dimensional objects ( Lorentz transformation ). If we could visualize the four-dimensional space-time reality, there would be noting paradoxical at all. ( Ref. 3 , p 178 ).
The Hindu sages, as mentioned above, seem to be able to attain non-ordinary states of consciousness in which they transcend the three –dimensional world of everyday life to experience a higher, multidimensional reality. Thus Aurobindo speaks about ‘a subtle change which makes the sight see in a sort of fourth dimension’ ( Sri Aurobindo , The Synthesis of Yoga , p 993 ). The dimensions of these states of consciousness may not be the same as the ones we are dealing with in relativistic physics, but it is striking that they have led the mystics towards notions of space and time which are very similar to those implied by relativity theory.
Throughout Hindu philosophy, there seems to be a strong intuition for the ‘space-time’ character of reality. The fact that space and time are inseparably linked, which is so characteristic of relativistic physics, is stressed again and again. This intuitive notion of space and time has, perhaps, found its clearest expression and its most far-reaching elaboration in Buddhism, and in particular in the Avatamsaka school of Mahayana Buddhism.
The equation of Lorentz Transformation shows :
Space co-ordinate includes time and Time co-ordinates include space;
X – Vt t – x V / C 2
x’ = ----------- ; t’ = ------------------ where r = 1 - V 2 / C 2
r r
The significance of the Avatamsaka and its philosophy is unintelligible unless we once experience… a state of complete dissolution where there is no more distinction between mind and body, subject and object…..We look around and perceive that….every object is related to every other object… not only spatially, but temporally. … As a fact of pure experience, there is no space without time, no time without space; they are interpenetrating .( Mahayana Buddhisim – D.T.Suzuki , p 33, )( Ref. 3 , p 179 ).
We can define a curved three-dimensional space to be one in which Euclidean geometry is no longer valid. The laws of geometry in such a space will be of a different, ‘non-Euclidean’ type. Such a non-Euclidean geometry was introduced as a purely abstract mathematical idea in the nineteenth century by the mathematician George Riemann, Nikolai Lobachevsky and others like Bolyai , Poincare etc. and it was not considered to be more than that, until Einstein made the revolutionary suggestion that the three-dimensional space in which we live is actually curved. According to Einstein’s theory, the curvature of space is caused by the gravitational fields of massive bodies. (Ref.3, p 184).
Times does not flow at the same rate as in ‘flat space-time’, and as the curvature varies from place to place, according to the distribution of massive bodies, so does the flow of time.
As the star collapses and becomes more and more dense, the force of gravity on its surface becomes stronger and stronger, and consequently the space-time around it becomes more and more curved. Because of the increasing force of gravity, on the star’s surface, it becomes more and more difficult to get away from it, and eventually the star reaches a stage where nothing-not even light-can escape from its surface. At that stage, we say that an ‘event horizon’ forms around that star, because no signal can get away from it to communicate any event to the outside world. The space around the star is then so strongly curved that all the light is trapped in it and cannot escape. We are not able to see such a star, because its light can never reach us and for this reason it is called a black hole. (Ref. 3 , p 186).
Black holes are among the most mysterious and most fascinating objects of relativity theory in a most spectacular way. The strong curvature of space-time around them prevents not only all their light from reaching us, but has an equally striking effect on time.
The Hindu sages, too, talk about an extension of their experience of the world in higher states of consciousness, and they affirm that these states involve a radically different experience of space and time. They emphasize not only that they go beyond ordinary three-dimensional space in meditation, but also-and even more forcefully – that the ordinary awareness of time is transcended. Instead of a linear succession of instants ( instants are of momentary duration , therefore the “ Present “ ), they experience – so they say – an infinite, timeless, and yet dynamic present.
What is the origin of this world?”
“Space,” he replied “For all these creatures take their rise from space, and they return to space. Space is indeed greater than these. Space is the ultimate abode.
“That which is Infinite-that, indeed, is happiness. There is no happiness in anything that is finite. The Infinite alone is happiness. But this Infinite one must desire to understand”.
“Where one sees nothing else, hears nothing else, understands nothing else-that is the Infinite. Where one sees something else, hears something else, understands something else, hears something else, understands something else-that is the finite. The Infinite indeed is immortal, the finite is mortal.
“The Infinite indeed is below. It is above. It is behind. It is in front. It is to the south, it is to the north. It is indeed all this.
“Next follows the explanation of the Infinite as I. I am below, I am above, I am behind, I am in front. I am to the south. I am to the north. I am indeed all this.
“Next follows the explanation of the Infinite as the Self. The Self indeed is below. The Self is above. The Self is behind. The Self indeed is below. The Self is above. The Self is behind. The Self is in front. The Self is to the south. The Self is to the north. The Self indeed is all this.
He who has neither beginning nor end, who in the midst of chaos has created all things and who, having many forms, pervades alone the universe-knowing Him one is freed from all fetters.
Full is that, and full is this. Out of the full comes the full. When from the full, the full is taken, the full itself remains. (Ref. 8 , p 116,168,169,263,271)
Atomic Theory and Hindu Philosophy
The Ayurvedic period ( Circa 600 BC – 800 AD ) constitutes the most flourishing and fruitful age of India relating to accumulation and development of chemical science which was then associated with medicine.
Two of the theory of cosmogenesis deserve particular mention in this connection. One has been described by Samkhya system of Hindu philosophies ( Circa 500 BC ) and the other in the Chandogya Upanishad.
Samkhya theory of cosmogony may be represented as based on the principles of conservation , transformation and dissipation of energy, as also on the consumption of space ( Desa ) and time ( Kala ). The idea of causality has also been elaborated in advanced manner.
According to Samkhya the universe, as it is manifested to us, is evolved out of an unmanifested cosmic nature termed prakriti or avyakta, the ultimate ground. The latter is defined as an infinite, eternal, ubiquitous, indestructible, indifferentiated, indeterminate continuum. This was believed to be made up of infinitestmal reals or gunas, representing substantive entities. These entities are classified under three heads distinguished as sattva, the essence or intelligence-stuff, rajas, the energy-stuff, and tamas, the inertia or matter-stuff. These three gunas exist together in equilibrium or uniform diffusion in the infinite continuum, prakriti. It is indeed intriguing to note here that Samkhya , prakriti. It is indeed intriguing to note here that Samkhya attributes the character of both quantum ( parichchhinnatva ) and continuity or extension ( pariman ) to the energy-stuff as well as to the matter-stuff. It bears resemblance to our modern conception of energy and matter. In the beginning the cosmic nature or prakriti, the continuum, was in a state of perfect equipoise with all its gunas or stuffs in equilibrium of uniform diffusion. This represented the process of cosmic evolution under arrest. The process of evolution was then initiated by a disturbance of this equilibrium through the transcendental or magnetic influence exerted on the slumbering prakriti by purusha, the Absolute, often designated as the Soul, the atman , or the transcendental self. Purusha or atman is incapable of modification or affectation of any kind either as subject of object. The disturbance of the original equilibrium in the prakriti led to an unequal aggregation or collection of gunas, which represented a creative transformation accompanied gunas, which represented a creative transformation accompanied by evolution of motion ( parispanda ). This evolution has been defined in Samkhya as the process of differentiation in the integrated whole. This proceeds in accordance with a definite law which it cannot violate or overstep.
The conception of space (desa) and time kala), and the idea of causality, As elaborated in Samkhya, are of a surprisingly advanced character.
The conception of cosmic evolution as advanced in the Chhandogya Upanishad is of an entirely different character. According to this, the universe in the beginning existed, so to stay, in a highly refined or potential form like a seed or an embryo. This then changed into a grosser stuff, ap (water), which latter again changed into a still grosser body, egg. This egg, after a period of maturing, burst into two pieces, which gave rise to two worlds, The Heaven and Earth. This is obviously a very crude picture, but curiously enough, bears some resemblance to the modern theory of evolution based on the idea of expanding universe.
Kapila, the reputed originator of the Samkhya philosophy, developed his ideas about the ultimate particles of matter in the latter part of his theory of cosmogenesis. According to him five subtle or infra-atomic particles, named as tanmatras and imperceptible to human senses, were derived from the conscious principle, human senses, were derived from the conscious principle, bhutadi – the super-subtile homogeneous mater rudiment, as a result of continued differentiation and unequal aggregation. These subsequently gave rise, by the same process, to the five grosser elements ( bhutas) :- space or ether (akasa), air (vayu), fire (tejas), water (ap) and earth (kshiti). These five types of grosser elements should not be confounded with five different elementary substance in the usual sense. They are regarded as representing five abstract principles, or rather a classification of substances on the basis of their properties and states of aggregation. For instance, earth, water and air may be viewed as comprising all the so-called elements or compounds of chemistry. Thus, kshiti typifies all solids, ap all liquids, and vayu all gases. According to Samkhya, atoms (anus) of these grosser (elements are composite units made up of infra-atomic particles ( tanmatras). The difference in the properties of the same bhuta (class is attributed by Samkhya to a difference in the grouping of tanmatras in the atoms (anus). The atomic theory of Samkhya bears a great resemblance to the Greek theory of elements introduced by Empedocles ( 490-430 B.C).
Kanada, the founder of the Vaiseshika system of Indian philosophy, chiefly occupied himself with the study of the properties of matter and the nature of atoms and molecules. The atomic hypothesis, as propounded by him, has many points in common with that of the Greek philosopher Democritus ( 470 – 360 B.C). Almost identical views are expressed in the Nyaya system of Hindu philosophy.
The distinguishing feature of the chemical theory of the Nyaya – Vaiseshika system is the theory of anus or atoms. They are comparable to tanmatras of the Samkhya philosophy. The idea has been fully worked out by Kanada in the Vaiseshika.
Akasa (ether), according to Kanada, has no atomic structure; it is inert and ubiquitous serving only as the substratum of sound which is supposed to travel in the form of waves in the manifesting medium of vayu (air ). Samkhya too conceived of akasa as the universal all –pervading medium in which air , light and heat corpuscles, and other atoms move and float about. Kanada, therefore, recognizes four kinds of atoms ; viz., the kshiti, the ap, the tejas and the vayu atoms, which correspond to the atoms of four gross elementary types of matter, - earth, water, fire and air, as taught by the Greek philosophers. Regarding light and heat Kanada makes the remarkable statement that they are only the different forms of one and the same essential entity, tejas. Kanada attributes to these atoms certain characteristic properties, such as number, quantity, individuality, mass, gravity, fluidity, velocity, elasticity, as well as certain characteristic potentials of sense stimuli like colour, taste, smell or touch. According to him atoms are eternal and indestructible, though they cannot exist in free or uncombined state. As an aggregate or in the combined state they are, however, transient.
The characteristic of Kanada’s atomic theory is the assumption of the atoms as the indivisible ultimate particles of matter with eternal like . they are thus indestructible. Though eternal in themselves, they are, however, non-eternal as aggregates.
The atomic theory of the Jainas (circa 40 A.D.) is characterized by a very remarkable and interesting contribution to the subject of chemical combination. It relates to their analysis of atomic linking and the mutual attraction or repulsion of atoms in the formation of molecules. The Jaina system of philosophy holds that the different classes of elementary substances ( bhutas) are all made up of the same primordial atoms. Hence , the same kind of interatomic forces is involved in the formation of chemical compounds, as well as of molecules, from atoms. ( Ref. 11, p 40-47 )
Vedanta and Physics (Ref. 16 )
Albert Einstein dreamed of “Unified –field theory “ – a single force out of which all other forces in this universe have been made. Physicist are trying to built a picture of our universe immediately after 10 –43 second of Big -Bang . Democretus , Greece Philosopher , thought of “ Atomos” to be the ultimate building block of matter ; today this has spread in to more than 200 sub –atomic particles.
Famous Physicist Stephen Hawkins admitted “ its seems very reasonable to suppose that there may be some unifying principles , so that all laws are part of some bigger law. So what we are trying to find out is whether there is some bigger law from which all other laws can be derived. I think you can ask that question whether or not you believe in God (New York Times magazine , 23 Jan. 1983 , p 53).
When the first atom bomb trial was carried out in the desert of Alamogordo a huge dazzling conflagration emerged up in the sky, from where Oppenhemer was standing far away, started attiring the lines from the Gita.
If the radiance of a ten thousands suns
Were to burst into the sky
That would perhaps be like
The splendour of the Mighty One.
That was a moment of great significance when Western science converged towards Eastern Vedanta , as A.D Reincourt says in his book , The Eye of Shiva.
Nobel physicist Schroedinger, writing on the growing importance of consciousness in Quantum Physics, declared:
In all the world there is no kind of framework within which we find consciousness in the plural. This is simply something we construct because of the temporal plurality of the individuals. But it is a false construction….The only solution to this conflict, in so far as any is available to us at all, lies in the ancient wisdom of the Upanisad. (My View of World – Erwin Schroedinger )
…Can a connection between the scientific and mystical frames of reference be established over and beyond a certain metaphysical parallelism ? The answer lies in the fact that Indian mysticism, at least as far as its leading representatives are concerned, has evolved as much in the past hundred years as the science of physics itself, in a direction that points towards an inevitable convergence of the two. (The Eye of Shiva)
New particles are created by collision of non particles at extremely high velocity nearing to that of light ( Feynmann’s diagrams ) . The endless process of destruction and creation of sub atomic particles is going on at outer space. Prof. Capra has compared this with the dance of God Nataraja Siva who is the protector of Uma (means Earth ) and all the creatures with his four hands.
The right upper hand holds a drum to symbolize the primary sound of creation in the universe.
The left upper hand bears a tongue of flame symbolizing the destruction of harmful cosmic particle from outer space.
The right lower hand is raised in the sign of – ‘Do not be afraid . I am protecting you all’.
The left lower hand points down to the ‘uplifted foot’ which symbolizes surrender at the feet of Siva – the protector. (Ref. 4, p 244)
Thousands of years ago the Upanisad realize the fundamental truth the entire Universe is one, interconnected and interpenetrated by the ultimate reality which they termed Brahman. “That reality, O Gargy ‘ has interpenetrated the whole universe , says the Sage Yajanvalkya. (Ref.6, Brhadaramyaka Upanisad 3.8.8)
Says Swami Vivekananda:
‘One atom in this universe cannot move without dragging the whole world along with it. There cannot be any progress without the whole world following in the wake, and it is becoming everyday clearer that the solution of any problem can never the attained on racial, or national, or narrow ground. Every idea has to become broad till it covers the whole of this world, every aspiration must go on increasing till it has engulfed the whole humanity, nay the whole of life within its scope.’ (Ref. 17, Vol 3., p 269)
The Theory of Relativity has proved the relative nature of all matter. Quantum physics has shown that matter has no purely objective reality. Particle physics has shown that the concept of a separate, individual, isolated piece of matter does not exist.
While Heisenberg was working on Quantum theory, he went to India to lecture and he was a guest of Tagore. He talked a lot with Tagore about Indian philosophy. Heisenberg told me that these talks had helped him a lot with his work in physics, because they showed him that all these new ideas in Quantum theory were in fact not all that crazy. He realized there was, in fact, a whole culture that subscribed to very similar ideas. Heisenberg said that this was a great help for him. (Niels Bohr had a similar experience when he went to China.)
Maya & Space-time
One of the fundamental concepts of Advaita Vetanta is its theory of Maya . Swami Vivekananda correctly characterized it as “ a statement of fact “
Samkara had identified Maya with space, time and causation –desa, kala, nimitta. Swami Vivekananda followed Samkara’s theory of Maya but gave it a thoroughly modern logical formulation. Long before Einstein, he clearly stated the relativity of time and space. In the following statement he advances concepts which come so very close to those of Einstein.
The one peculiar attribute we find in time, space and causation is that they cannot exist separate from things. Try to think of space without colour or limits or any connection with the things around – just abstract space. You cannot. You have to think of it as the space between two limits, or between three objects. It has to be connected with some object to have any existence. So with time; you cannot have any idea of abstract time (or absolute time, as Einstein put it – author ) but you have to take two events by the idea of succession. Time depends on two events, just as space has to be related to outside objects. And the idea of causation is inseparable form time and space. (Ref. 17, Vol 2, p 135-136)
Michael Talbot in his book entitled, Mysticism and New Physics, compares the space-time concepts of Vivekananda with those of the father of space-time continuum idea, Herman Minkowski. After quoting Vivekananda’s idea of space time Talbot writes.
The remark was originally made by mystic S. Vivekananda in Jnana Yoga, but the fact that the names of the mathematician who first theorized that space and time are a continuum, Herman Minkowski, and the greatest of the historical Brahmin sages, confluence of mysticism and the new physics. (Ref. 16, p 69-70)
It seems obvious that the author mistakes the term ‘Advaita’ for the name of a person. But the similarity between the ideas of Vivekananda and those Minkowski strike him deeply, and Talbot continues,
Vivekananda further expresses a view that has become the backbone of quantum theory. There is no such thing as strict causality.
While Heisenberg asserted that the outcome of any microphysical experiment is linked with the mind of the scientist, Eugene Wigner, Nobel physicist in 1961, went a step further and asserted that ‘it is impossible to give description of quantum mechanical principle without explicit reference to consciousness. Einstein said, ‘But the creative principle resides in mathematics. In a certain sense, therefore, I hold it true that pure thought can grasp reality as the ancients dreamed’.
Vivekananda told his western audience more than eighty years ago.
Though an atom is invisible, unthinkable, yet in it are the whole power and potency of the universe. That is exactly what the Vedantist says of Atman. (Ref.17, Vol 7, p 50)
The world is homogeneous, and modern science shows beyond doubt that each atom is composed of the same material as the whole universe…. Man is the most representative being in the universe, the microcosm, a small universe in himself. (Ref.17, Vol 4, p 49)
Nearly half a century later Schrodinger echoes these very ideas in his Cambridge lectures on modern physics.
In Christian terminology to say’, writes Schrodinger, ‘ “Hence I am God Almighty” sounds both blasphemous and lunatic. But please disregard these connotations for the moment and consider the above reference (that the individual is identical with the Cosmic I or Atman = Brahman ) is not the closest a biologist can get to proving God and immortality at a stroke’. (Ref. 16, p 88)
Rg-Vedic Hymn of Creation known as the Nasadiya-suktam was translated by Swami Vivekananda , the first three stanzas are given below: (Ref. 16, p 105)
Existence was not then, nor non-existence,
The world was not, the sky beyond was neither.
What covered the mist ? Of whom was that?
Death was not then, nor immortality,
The night was neither separate from day,
But motionless did That vibrate
Alone, with Its own glory one-
Beyond That nothing did exist.
At first in darkness hidden darkness lay,
Undistinguished as one mass of water,
Then That which lay in void thus covered
A glory did put forth by Tapah.
VI . Metallurgy
The Indus Valley has been the cradle of a glorious civilization; and it is believed that India was one of the earliest civilizations to use iron.
The Rig Veda – universally accepted as the earliest collection of hymns in Sanskrit – mentions the word Ayas many times to mean one of several metals, viz. iron, copper and gold in different contexts. One school of thought believes that Ayas only means iron and not copper or gold.
It is generally believed that Asia Minor was the region where the first smelting operations of iron ore were carried out between 1800 and 1200 BC and by about 1000 BC, iron was extensively used even as far as the near East. Contrary to common belief that copper was the first metal extracted by man from its ore, it has been stated in many references available in ancient India that lead was the first metal to be extracted, about 9000 years ago.
In India, the advent of copper technology is believed to be about 1000 years younger than that of iron. The earliest Iron Age sites in India are in Ganges Valley dating to the early centuries of the first millennium BC. The archaeological evidence gathered suggests that the use of iron in North India was in an experimental stage at that time – it slowly percolated to the South by around 1100-900 BC. Whatever be the exact date, it can definitely be stated that iron was in use in India around the first millennium BC, well before its use was known in other parts of the world.
Vivid descriptions are to be found of this epic battle, where iron swords, spears, axes and arrows were extensively used. The iron mace of Bhima has received special mention in the Mahabaharata. It has been stated that the blind King Dhiritarastra broke to pieces, in great agony, a life size iron statue of Bhima. Such accounts give concrete proof of the wide use of iron in weaponry days of yore.
The famous Iron Pillar of Meharauli near the Kutub Minar in Delhi has attracted considerable attention in view of its excellent preservation over 15 centuries. From a consideration of the script and the text of the inscription on the pillar, is believed to have been constructed sometime in the early 4th century A.D. during the reign of the King Chandravarman of Pushkarana, Rajputana as a pillar of victory or is a memorial to a king , probably Chandragupta II , who ruled India between 376 and 415 AD. The Pillar is over seven meters tall and weighs about seven tons. It is said that it would not have possible to produce an object of this magnitude with the then existing state of knowledge even in Europe. ( Ref.11, p 177 & Ref. , p 99 ).
An analysis of the iron in this Pillar has revealed that it contains 99.72% iron, 0.80% carbon, 0.46% silicon, 0.006% sulphur and 0.114% phosphorus, with no manganese. The absence of corrosion has been attributed to the rather high phosphorus and the negligible sulphur and manganese contents as also to the dry weather conditions in the environs of Delhi. The nature of the dense iron of the pillar, its microstructure, the good forge welding employed and the relatively low degree of cold working have also contributed to corrosion resistance. ( Ref. 11 , p. 177 -178 )
The weight of the pillar has been estimated to exceed 6 tons. Analysis of the specimens of the material of the pillar has proved that it is made of wrought iron without any alloy. Specific gravity of the metal, as given by Hadfield, is 7.81, that of the purest wrought iron being 7.84. Absence of manganese is significant. Low percentage of sulphur indicates the use of charcoal as fuel, as also the purity of the ore. The pillar has wonderfully withstood the influence of rain and air for over fifteen centuries without giving any sign of rust formation. ( Ref. 12 , p 100 ) .
Expert observers of all classes are of opinion that this pillar presents an indisputable and permanent record of marvelous metallurgical skill an engineering ability of the ancient Indian workers, which can reasonably claim unstinted admiration even of our present time. According to the opinion of the experts the pillar was constructed by welding short pieces of wrought iron previously forged into shapes. ( Ref.12 , p 100 ).
Iron beams of wrought iron as also iron pieces were used in the construction of the famous Sun Temple at Konarak in Orissa dating back to the 13th century AD. The forging of the beams is not so perfect as in the case of the Delhi pillar and have rusted extensively.
The early process of iron smelting gave wrought iron, which was soft and malleable but did not harden, as it did not have enough carbon. It is believed that Wootz steel was first made in Southern India. The world Wootz was probably derived from the Kannada word ukku, meaning steel .
Indian ‘Wootz’ steel became very well known when it was used for making Damascus blades, which became famous in Europe. In making Damascus steel, soft iron pieces were piled on pieces of high carbon iron and were then heated and forged . The layering that resulted from incomplete diffusion from the high carbon to the low carbon pieces, gave rise to the surface appearance called carbon pieces, gave rise to the surface appearance called “watering”, which was a characteristic of the Damascus steel. ( Ref. 11 , p 178 )
The findings at the Indus Valley site prove that the metal workers of two capital cities of Mohenjo-daro and Harappa were very skilful and there was plentiful supply of Copper, Silver and Gold. Uses of lead and tin were not uncommon though the latter metal occurred always alloyed with copper in the form of bronze. (Ref. 12 , p 24 )
Forging and casting technique was used in Indus Valley metallurgy. Small percentage of tin and arsenic were used as deoxidizing agent to cast molten copper avoiding sponginess due to bubbles of free oxygen. Copper alloyed with arsenic was also used at Mohenjo – daro and Harappa. (Ref. 12, p 26 ) . Articles made of gold – silver alloy, electrum, have been found in Mohenjo-daro. (Ref. 12 ,p 29 ).
The Indus Valley culture, based on complicated urban organization, constituted, so to say, a land mark in the annals of early Bronze Age Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BC. In the Rigveda, we find mention of only gold, silver, copper and bronze among metals. In Bramhanas and Upanishads, which were of later date than Vedas ( 800 BC – 500 BC), we find that the word ayas has been differentiated into lohitayas or red-metal and krishnayas or black metals. No articles of iron has been found in the excavation of Harappa or Mohenjo-daro. (Ref. 12 ,p 35 )
In Yajurveda we find mention of six metals – ayas (gold), hiranya (silver), loha (copper), shyama (iron), sis (lead ), and trapu (tin ). (Ref. 12 , p 36 )
The achievements of the ancient Indians in metallurgy and working of metals as illustrated by many ancient and historic monuments still extant in many parts of India.( Ref. 12 , p 90 ).
Copper
A solid copper bolt, apparently shaped into form by hammer after being cast, has been found in the Rampurwa Asoka pillar near the frontier of Nepal. Historical evidences indicate that it is a product of the third century B.C.
The famous Chinese traveler Hiuen Tsang has left a description of a colossal copper statue of Buddha, 80 ft. in height which he found standing upright near about the famous Nalanda convent in Bihar. According to the Chinese traveler this gigantic copper image, which would approach the bronze colossus of Rhodes island in dimensions, requires a pavilion of six stages to cover it. It is believed to have been constructed during the reign of Raja Purnavarman, the last descendant of King Asoka, a king of the 7th century A.D.
There are numerous evidences about the use of copper in early days in India in the form of coins issued by the Greek and Bactrian kings of the 3rd century B.C., as well as by the Kushan kings like Kanishka and his successors in the 2nd century A.D., and by the Gupta kings of the following periods. There are ample evidences of copper being smelted on an extensive scale in ancient India. In the Singbhum and Hazaribagh districts of Chotanagpur it is believed, on geological evidences , that copper was mined and extracted some two thousand years ago.
Excavations at Taxila have revealed a large number of articles of copper, bronze, brass and lead dating from the 5th century B.C. to the 6th century A.D. These consist mostly of ornaments, toilet articles, household vessels, surgical and other
Instruments of the Kushan period . Analysis of these by the archaeological chemists Mr. Sanaullah and Dr. Hamid were carried out . From a consideration of the analytical results it may be concluded that the composition of soft copper, which was employed for hammered work, shows that the metal was generally of great purity, sometimes reaching 99.7 percent. Bronze, containing 21-25 percent of tin was preferred for casting domestic utensils and other articles. This was due obviously to its easy fusibility; as bronze containing 8-12 percent tin, which possesses much greater strength but higher melting point, was employed to a much less extent. Casting in closed moulds or cire perdue process was extensively practiced.
Brass appears to have been introduced in Northern India quite early, probably through Chinese trade; but it was later manufactured in India also, by heating copper with calamine and carbonaceous matter. Solders have also been recovered from some of the copper and bronze vessels found at Taxila. The results of their analysis show that lead and its alloy with tin in equal proportions were used for ordinary soldering. The discoveries at Taxila leave no doubt that metal industries flourished in India in the first millennium B.C. and that the metallurgical skill had attained a high level during this epoch.
Steel has been prepared and used in India from remote ages. There is no dearth of evidences regarding the high quality of Indian iron and steel of ancient and medieval times. Thus Ktesias, who was at the Court of Persia in the 5th century B.C., mentions two remarkable swords of Indian steel presented to him by the king of Persia and his mother.
A large number of surgical instruments described in the Ayurvedic treatise of Susruta also furnish indisputable evidence in support of this view. J.M. Heath, in an article ( Journal of Royal Asiatic Society, 1839, Vol. V, 395 ) refers to the fact that according to Quintus Curtius a present of steel weighing about 30 lb. was made to Alexander the Great by the Indian Chief, Porus, whose country he had invaded. Obviously, steel must have been regarded as an article of great value in those days. It is believed that the Indian steel was exported to the Western Countries as early as about 2000 years ago. Steel was produced in ancient India by a process resembling the modern cementation or crucible process. ( Ref. 12 , p 90 –102 )
VII. Chemistry
Pre- Harappan period – In a cemetery at Nal a flat copper axe was found besides many pottery vessels and beads in certain areas and two hoards of copper implements were observed at another place. These are from Pre-Harappan period. It’s analysis gave a composition of Copper – 93.05%, Lead – 2.14%, Nickel 4.80% & Arsenic – trace. The high percentage of nickel is rather significant. ( Ref. 12 , p 2 ). At Harappa , a dark red variety of earthenware bangle sample has been found . Analysis of one of the specimens showed combination of Silica , Alumina , Ferrous & Ferric oxide, Manganese oxide , Magnesia , Lime & Alkalies. ( Ref. 12 , p 14 )
References are found in Rig Veda about the preparation and tanning of leather. People were acquainted with the art of dying with certain natural vegetable colouring material. ( Ref. 12 , p 36 )
Chemistry in Kautilya
Ayurveda means science of life ; and it is believed that Atharvaveda, which deals with recipes for prolongation of life, has given birth to it.
The earliest and most authentic record of information relating to the knowledge of chemistry, metallurgy and medicine of these early days is found in the Arthashastra ( Treatise on Polity ) of Kautilya which gives a magnificent account of the political, social, industrial, civil and military organizations of the 4th century B.C. (321-296 B.C). A very comprehensive account of ores, minerals and metals with their extraction and working, as well as of alloys, is found in the Arthashastra.
The description of the ores of gold, silver, copper, lead, tin and iron , is found in the Arthashastra.
“The impurities of ores, whether superficial or inseparably combined with them, can be got rid of and the metal melted when the ores are treated ( chemically) with iron (tikshna), alkalies (plant ashes ), etc.
A rather detailed description of the properties of gold and silver, and of their working has been given by Kautilya. “ Gold may be obtained either pure or amalgamated with mercury or silver, or alloyed with other impurities as mine gold.” “Pure gold combined with an equal quantity of lead and heated with rock salt to the melting point under dry cow-dung becomes the basis of gold alloys of blue, red, white, yellow, parrot and pigeon colours.
Kautilya describes further the preparation of a large variety of gold alloys with different quantities of copper and silver. The process of assaying has also been mentioned and stressed upon. Kautilya further gives a graphic account of the methods employed by the goldsmiths for the adulteration and stealing of gold by substituting baser metals for it.
Various kinds of liquors described are :
Medaka, prasanna, asava, arista, maireya, and madhu
Medaka is prepared from the fermentation of rice; prasanna from the fermentation of flour with the addition of spices and the fruits of putraka ( a species of tree in the country of Kamrupa). Asava is the liquor derived from the fermentation of sugar mixed with honey. Jaggery mixed with powder of long and black pepper or with the powder of triphala mixture of Terminalia chebula, Terminalia belerica, and Phyllanthus emblica), when fermented, forms maireya. Fermented grape juice is termed madhu. The preparation of different kinds of arista for different diseases can be learn from the physicians.
From a survey of the information contained in the Arthashastra, so far as it concerns us, we find that there was a considerable advancement in the knowledge of metals and their working. Methods for the large scale production of metals like gold, silver, copper, iron, tin, lead and mercury and of alloys like brass, bronze, and those of gold and silver with baser metals were known.
We now come to a time when the Hindu system of medicine was methodized and arranged more or less on a rational basis, with a scientific terminology. The two earliest and most renowned treatises of the period are the Charaka and the Susruta, by sages of the same names, dealing respectively with medicine and surgery in the main. They constitute the repositories of many chemical information of the time. These treatises, usually known as the Charaka Samhita and the Susruta Samhita, passed through repeated recensions by later and more advanced workers. The theories and discussions in the Charaka and the Susruta, particularly in the Charaka, are based on the doctrines of the Samkhya system of philosophy, combined with a methodology derived from the Nyaya- Vaiseshika system. The Charaka, however, is not so systematic as the Susruta, but indulges often in random and irrelevant discourses. In the Charaka Samhita we find that the author is inordinately fond of metaphysical disquisitions in preference to experiments and observations. The Susruta in this respect is far more scientific than the Charaka.
Agnivesa, whose work formed that basis of the Charaka Samhita, was the disciple of Atreya, who, according to a Buddhist Jataka, was a teacher of medicine in the University of Takshasila (Taxila ) during the age of Buddha.
From the considerations set forth above, it might be concluded that there should be little hesitation in placing the original work of Charaka in the early Buddhistic era, though P.C. Ray in his History of Hindu Chemistry prefers to place it in the pre-Buddhistic era.
As regards the age of the Susruta the evidences are, however, comparatively definite. The extant Susruta is generally believed to be a comparatively modern recension by the celebrated Buddhist chemist, Nagarjuna (8th century A.D) who is said to have added the Uttaratantra or the Supplement. The Susruta is par excellence a treatise on surgery as the Charaka is on medicine proper. According to a Buddhist Jataka, Susruta was a teacher in the University of Kasi (Banaras ) during Buddha’s time and was a younger contemporary of Atreya.
According to Charaka all objects are the results of the combination of five elements, viz., earth, water, fire, air and ether or space. Five kinds of salts are described in the Charaka. These are sauvarchala (nitre), saindhava ( rock salt), vit (black salt), audbhida (vegetable salt ) and samudra (sea salt ). Minerals like sulphate of copper, sulphate of iron, realgar, orpiment and sulphur have been prescribed in combination with vegetable drugs for use as external application in many skin disease.
Dealing with the preparation and use of alkalies and alkaline caustics Susruta makes the following remarkable observations.
“Of all cutting instruments and necessary cutting instruments, caustics are superior in as much as they perform the work of incisions, punctures and scarifications, relieve derangement of three humours and uniformly affect the diseased part to which they are applied. Kashara (caustics ) are so called because they remove diseased parts and destroy the skin and flesh. They possess burning escharotic and lacerating properties. Caustics are acrid , hot and pungent. Neutralization of the alkali by an acid has also been described by Susruta. (Ref. 12, p 49-65 )
Glass
The knowledge of chemistry as involved in various practical arts were developed by the ancient Indians during the Ayurvedic period.
Kautilya has made mention of glass ( Kacha ) beads in connects with some ornamental work with gold ( Kshepana ) . The Indians of Kautilya’s time were , therefore, acquainted with process of glass making. Glass ( Kacha ) was differentiated from crystal ( sphatika ) as early as in the days of Susruta . Pliny also referred to the glass of India as superior to all others.
Chemical analysis of some of the kopia glasses were made by P. Roy of the Central Glass & Ceramic Research Institute, Calcutta. One characteristic features of all these pieces is that they are soda-lime glasses containing a high percentage of Alumina.
The earliest specimen of true glass in India according to Marshall was found at the Taxila in the Bhir mound ( circa 5ht century B.C) . The pottery at Taxila (of circa 150-200 A.D ) was highly developed and sophisticated as can be judged from the quality and finish of the wares. (Ref. 11, p.73 )
Dyes and Paints
Among the dyes or colours used by the ancient Indians we find mention of indigo (nila), lac (laksha), turmeric ( halidda), maddar (menjetthi ) and resin (rajana ) in a passage in Samyutta Nikaya (part III, p. 152) where Buddha makes an incidental reference to them. The great Sanskrit grammarian, Panini (c. 500 B.C.) also makes mentions of indigo, lac and redochre for dyening cloth.
Contents of an ink-pot recovered at Taxila were found on examination by the archaeological chemist to contain black carbon mixed with earth. This provides an instance of the use of carbon ink in the Kushan period (Archaeological Report, 1929, 30, 209 ).
According to some authorities ink was used in India already during the 4th century B.C. The relic-vase of the stupa of Andher, believed to be of the second century B.C., contains inscriptions written with ink on its surface. ( Ref. 12, p 104).
Cosmetics
In the Vrihat Samhita there is also some allusion to hair dyes, cosmetics, frankincense and scents. There is a chapter on perfumery where various recipes for artificial imitation of natural flower scents such as the essence of vakula utpala, champaka, etc., are given, and compound scents are arranged in a sort of scale according to the proportions of certain basic scents used in combination for their preparation. ( Ref. 11, p 104).
Cements
Vrihat Samhita also describes several preparations of cements or powders called vajra-lepa which means literally “ paints or coatings as strong as the thunder-bolt”, and vajrasamghata meaning “ composition as hard as the thunder-bolt”. There was ample use for these in the temple architecture of the Buddistic period, the remains of which bear testimony to the adamantine strength of these cements. From the description given for their preparation and use they are to be regarded respectively as rock-cements (varjra-lepa) and metal-cements ( vajra-samghata). ( Ref. 11, p 104 ).
Medicine
We now come upon a period which represents a transition in the progress of Hindu medicine so far as the nature and composition of substances used as drugs are concerned. From about the beginning of this period and even since the days of Vagbhata we find an increasing use of metallic preparations.
Two notable treatises of this period are the Siddhayoga of Vrinda and Chakradatta of Chakrapani Dutta. Synthetic metallic preparations have received considerable attention in these treatise. Both Vrinda and Chakrapani mention Nagarjuna as an authority, and follow closely in the footsteps of Charaka, Susruta and Vegbhata. Nagarjuna is the most conspicuous figure in Indian alchemy .
Chakrapani bases his work on that of Vrinda who again follows closely the order and the pathology of the Nidana of Madhavacharya or Madhavakara. Chakrapani, himself a learned commentator of the Charaka and the Susruta, wrote his work in 1050 A.D.
In medical science the Indians had made considerable progress. According to early tradition, Charaka, the author of Charaka-samhita, was a contemporary of Kanishka. The next important name is that of Susruta, the author of the well –known Samhita, who flourished earlier than fourth century A.D. Other well known writers are Vagbhata (7th c. A.D.) and Chakrapanidatta (11th c. A.D.).
Mercury has been mentioned as a constituent of a medicine to be applied externally for killing lice. The instruction for the preparation of this medicine is to rub quicksilver with the juice of Dhatura metel or Piper betle. The use of copper compounds has been prescribed in the preparation of a collyrium.
A preparation known as parpati-tamram has been described as follows. Sulphur, copper and the pyrites are to be pounded together with mercury and subjected to roasting in a closed crucible, and the product thus obtained to be administered with honey. Sulphides of copper and mercury are obviously produced by this operation. Sulphide of mercury constitutes the main ingredient of another preparation called rasamrita churnam.
In all the principal treatises of Hindu medicine of the Ayurvedic and the later periods, this influence of religion and philosophy on the theories and practice of medicine is clearly discernible. This is best illustrated in the Ayurvedic treatises, the Charaka and the Susruta, where we find an elaborate discourse on the origin of matter and life, and on duties and disciplines of life with a view to its spiritual progress, as well as on other philosophical doctrines blended with medical theories and recipes.
The character of the Hindu medical wisdom and its basis have been beautifully elucidated by Zimmer in his well-known book “ Hindu Medicine”. In Rasaratnakara we find recipes for a number of mercurial preparations, as well as descriptions of processes and apparatuses , of which there is no mention in Vegbhata or any other treatise of that time. We may not, therefore, be wide off the mark if we put down 7th or 8th century A.D. as its latest date. Reference may be made in this connection to the observations made by the great Arabian scholar Alberuni about one Nagarjuna, a native of the fort Daihak near Somnath, nearly a century earlier than his own time. This Nagarjuna has been described by Alberuni as a great adept in rasayana or alchemy and as the author of a rare book which contained the substance of the whole literature on the subject. Another important treatise of this period is Rasarnava, a Brahminical Tantra of the Saiva cult. Like Rasaratnakara it embodies much valuable information on chemistry. (Ref. 12 , p. 108,109,113,114,117,118 ).
Ayurveda
Ayurveda was discovered ,nurtured and perfected in India. This science of longevity was not just a collection of therapeutic recipes , but a frame-work , which defined conditions of sickness and connected them with healing practices. This science not only thrived in Bharat but also influenced healing practices of many other countries. Strong interaction existed between Greeks and Hindus around 4th Century BC, when the great Greek sage Appollonius of Tyana , came to India and carried this knowledge to many countries and thus influenced the healing traditions in Tibet , Sri Lanka , Burma ( Myanmar) and to some extent China ( Ref. 15 ).
Rasaratnakara of Nagarjuna
Calamine, a zinc mineral, when roasted with copper in the presence of reducing organic matters, is likely to give rise to brass, which was possibly passed as artificially prepared gold.
Silver alloyed with lead and fused with ashes becomes purified. Lo it is not to be wondered at that copper, melted with the alkali derived from the earth and the milk of the ewe, clarified butter and one-sixteenth of its weight of oil, will become pure like the crescent of the moon.
Makashika , (pyrites), repeatedly soaked in honey, oil of Ricinus communis, urine of the cow, clarified butter and the extract of the bulbous root of Musa aspientum, and heated in a crucible yields an essence in the shape of copper.
Risaka (calamine ), digested repeatedly with fermented paddy-water, natron and clarified butter, and mixed with wool, lac, Terminalia chebula and borax and roasted in a covered crucible, yields an essence of the appearance of tin.
Chapter Second of Rasaratnakara by Nagarjuna on the killing of diamond and the metals, extraction of the essence of minerals and liquefaction of mica.
Silver, copper, lead, zinc and mercury were often made into an amalgam, and the latter rendered compact and coloured yellow with the aid of orpiment. Process of fixation of mercury Piper longum, the dried root of ginger, the juice of Moringa pterygosperma, the tuber of Amorphophalus campanulatus, can readily amalgamate itself with the eight metals.
Nagarjuna mentioned remedies for warding off wrinkles, grey hair and other signs of old age. Mineral preparations act with equal efficacy on the metals as on the body (human system ) ( Ref. 12 , p. 129 – 133 ).
Chemistry of Rasarnava
It mentions apparatus for chemical operations and the Colour of Flames for detection of chemicals. Apparatus are , Dola Yantram , An Apparatus for Killing Metals , Garbha Yantram , Efficacy of the Apparatus , Hamsapaka Yantram ,
Crucibles , Kosthi Apparatus .
Colour of Flames – “copper yields a blue flame …. that of tin is pigeon –coloured; that of lead is pale-tinted … that of the iron is tawny;…. that of the “peacock” ore (sasyaka ) is red.
Test of a Pure Metal :- A pure metal is that, which when melted in a crucible, does not give off sparks nor bubbles, nor spurts, nor emits any sound, nor shows any lines on the surface, but is tranquil like a gem .
The Alkalies : The three alkalies are the borax, trona (natron ) and yavakshara (carbonate of potash).
Procedure for extraction of Copper from the Pyrites , extraction of Zinc from Calamine , extraction of Copper from Sasyaka are mentioned. Quicksilver , made into a paste by being rubbed with copper and subjected to distillation, leaves behind tin and lead (with which they are often adulterated) and becomes pure.
Take one pala of the ash of mercury and rub it with the same weight of sulphur and roast the mixture in a covered crucible ; thus we get vermilion of the colour of the rising sun. Process which gives rise to all alloy of copper, zinc and lead is also mentioned.
( Ref. 12 , p. 129,130,131, 133, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140)
Architecture / Town Planning
Epoch making discovery in 1922-23 AD, when the excavations of the ruins of Mohenjo-daro began, revealed the remains of successive cities, the earliest of which can be approx. dated about 2700 years before Christ. Further excavations at Harappa in Pakistan and various sites in Sindh and Baluchistan have proved the existence of a great civilization in this region which may be described as chalcolithic ( GK Chalcos = Copper ) i.e. combining the characteristics of both Neolithic and Copper Age. This is now generally called the Sindhu (Indus ) Valley Civilization.
Mohenjo-daro contains remains of succession of cities, each built upon the ruins of another, destroyed by the inundation of the Sindhu or other causes.
The extant ruins show remarkable town –planning. The streets, varying in width from 9 to 34 ft. , were regularly aligned , sometimes rerunning straight for half a mile. The principal streets were duly oriented to the points of the compass and intersected at right angles, dividing the city into square or rectangular blocks each of which was divided lengthwise and crosswise by a number of lanes. The city had on elaborate drainage system which opened into great culverts emptying in the river.
The dwelling houses varied from palatial building to one with two small rooms, showing the quarters of the rich and the poor.
……the most remarkable is the Great Bath measuring 180 ft by 108 ft. The bathing pool 39 ft long, 23 ft wide and 8 ft deep, occupies the center of a quadrangle, surrounded by verandas with room and galleries behind them. Near the Great Bath was a big granary originally 150 ft by 75 ft with massive construction and provision of loading facilities.
The largest building at Harappa has been named Great Granary. It measures 169 ft by 135 ft and is divided into two blocks , with a passage, 23 ft wide , between them, each hall having six halls with five intervening corridors.( Ref. 10, p 20,21)
The most widely accepted view is that the authors of Sindhu Valley Civilization were Dravidians. This would mean that the Sindhu Valley civilization flourished long before the Aryans came to India.(Ref. 10, p 22 ).
Art of Writing
The date of the vedic literature has formed the subject of a keen and protracted controversy. Max Muller started from the well known fact that some of the Upanishads were older than Buddha ( e.g. 500 BC) and came to the conclusion that the hymns of Rigveda must have been composed before 1200 – 1000 BC. Scholars like Jacobi and Tilak have, on astronomical grounds, referred the date of the Rik Samhita to a much higher antiquity than was contemplated by Max Muller. Thus Tilak refers some vedic texts to a period as far back as 6000 BC. According to Jacobi, the Vedic civilization flourished between 4500 and 2500 BC and the Samhitas were composed during later half of the period (Ref. 10 , p 40 ).
The available evidence merely proves, that the Vedic period extends from an unknown past say X, to 500 BC., none of the dates 1200-1500 BC, 1500 – 500 BC which are usually assumed, being justified by facts. (Ref. 10 , p 41).
……most scholars now agree in referring the introduction of writing in India to 7th century BC. They also hold that the ancient Indian alphabet , called Brahmi lipi, was derived from Semitic alphabets …… the generally accepted view is that of Buehler, who maintained that the Indian alphabet was derived from the earlist Phoenician alphabet which was in use in the 9th century BC.( Ref. 10, p 41 ).
Art and Sculpture
The artistic achievements of Ashoka may be classified under the following heads.
1. Stupas
2. Pillars
3. Caves
4. Residential buildings
Of the scanty remains of Asokan art, the most beautiful and at the same time the most characteristic specimens are furnished by the stone pillars. But by far the most magnificent capital is that of the Sarnath column – “ the finest piece of sculpture of its kind so far discovered in India.
The Indian art, which thus attained to a high standard of excellence during the period of the Mauryas. The caves of Asoka , although showing high technical skill, were neither very large nor richly carved. But many of the large caves of the next period, such as those at Bhaja, Bedsa, Kondane, Junnar, Nasik, Ajanta and Ellora in the west, and Udayagiri (near Bhuvaneshvar in Orissa ) in the east, not only show considerable developments in style, but are also highly decorated with fine sculptures and ornaments, and rank very high in point of artistic achievement. The cave at Karle, between Bomaby and Poona, is the finest example of this later series of caves.
Another instance of the progress of Indian art is to be seen in the highly ornamented gateways added to the stupas, the most notable case being that of the four gateways of the Sanchi stupa. There were various schools of sculpture in the post-Asokan period , the most notable being those of Gandhara, Mathura, Sarnath and Amaravati.( Ref.10 , p 222 – 226 ).
The Gupta architecture continues the tradition of the old and at the same time marks the beginning of a new age. The stupas and the rock-cut caves (both chaitya- halls and viharas ) continue the old forms, but possess striking novelty. The Dhamekh stupa at Sarnath, probably of the sixth century A.D., consisting of a circular stone drum with a cylindrical mass of brick works above it, and rising to a height of 128 ft., shows the final form of evolution of this type of structure. The caves, notably those at Ajanta (Nos. XVI, XVII, XIX ), while retaining the essential features of old , strike and altogether now line by the great beauty of their pillars of varied design and the fine paintings with which the inner walls and ceiling are decorated. Another notable groups of rock-cut monasteries and chaitya-halls are those of Ellora.
But it is in the domain of sculpture that the Gupta period witnesses the highest development of art in India. A copper image of Budha, about 80 feet thigh, was erected at Nalanda in Bihar at the close of the sixth century; and the fine Sultanganj Buddha, 7 ½ feet high, is still to be seen in the Museum at Birmingham (Ref. 10 , p 458 – 460 ).
Painting
The most ancient extant paintings in India do not go back more than a century or two before the Christian Era . These are frescoes in the Jogimara cave of the Ramgarh hill in the Surguja State, M.P. Traces of painting also exist in the Bedsa cave and probably belong to the 3rd century A.D. But the best fresco painting in India is illustrated in the series of Ajanta caves constructed between the first and seventh century A.D. These caves are 29 in number. (Ref.10 , p 460 ).
VIII . Vedangas / Literature – Grammar / Education
Of the Brahmanical literature , the most important are the works belonging to the Vedanga class. More important works under each of the six divisions of Vedangas are:
Siksha – Siksha may be defined as the science dealing with pronunciation of letters, accents, organs of pronunciation, delivery and euphonic laws.
Chhandas or Metre – Metre is dealt with in the Rigveda Pratisakhya the Sankhayana – Srauta – sutra, and the Nidana-Sutra belonging to the Samaveda.
Vyakarana or Grammar – The older works on this subject were superseded by the Grammar of Panini, called Ashtadhyayi . It has been rightly said about this work, that it presents ‘ the scientific treatment of a single tongue in a perfection which arouses the wonder and admiration of all those who are more thoroughly acquainted with it; it even now stands not only unsurpassed, but not even attained, and in many respects it may be looked upon as the model for similar work.
Panini was born & flourished in the fifth century B.C. His book, as the name implies, was divided into eight section comprising about 4,000 sutras and dealt mainly with the bhasha or current language of his time as opposed to the obsolete language of Vedic Samhitas. Two great grammarians who wrote commentaries on Panini’s work are Katyayana, the author of Varttikas, and Patanjali the author of Mahabhashya.
Nirukta or Etymology – As Grammar took its final shape in Panini’s work, so that etymological lexicography of Vedic terms was embodied in the Nirukta of Yaska, who flourished earlier than Panini.
Jyotisha – The only separate treatise on this subject is the Jyotisha – Vedanga, a small treatise of about 40 verses. It deals with the sun, the moon, and the 27 Nakshatras. The fact that it is written in verse, and not in the sutra style, shows that it is a later work.
Kalpa – The treatises on ritual fall into three classes include the Sulva-sutra which give directions for the building of sacrificial places and fire-altars, and thus constitute the oldest works on Indian Geometry. ( Ref 10 , p 189 – 191 ).
In addition to the religious literature described above, reference should also be made to the six definite schools of philosophy that were distinguished at an early date, vis. The Samkhya system of Kapila , the Yoga system of Patanjali, the Nyaya system of Gautama, the Vaiseshika system of Kanada, the Purva Mimamsa of Jaimini, and the Uttara – Mimamasa or the Vedanta of Vyasa. There were others of a technical character. Lexicons, grammar, dramaturgy and books on metrics and poetics, too numerous to mention in detail, have deservedly received a high recognition.
But although history received but scant attention, the allied sciences of Politics and Economics reached a high degree of development. ( Ref.10, p 441).
Education
The extensive literature described above is the visible product of a rational system of education which had no parallel in the history of the ancient world.
The object of this system of education was threefold: the acquisition of knowledge, the inculcation of social duties and religious rites, and above all, the formation of character. All the three aims were kept distinctly in the forefront, but the greatest emphasis was laid upon the last. Takshasila ( Taxila ) was the most famous seat of learning in ancient India till the rise of Nalanda in the fifth century A.D. It had many famous teachers, and attracted students not only from all parts of India but also from other parts of the world.
The Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsan studied at Nalanda for several years and has left a short but impressive accounts of its magnificence. There were thousands of similar institution in India’, says he, ‘but none comparable to Nalanda in grandeur. There were 10,000 students who studied not only the Buddhist literature in all its branches, but even other works such as the Vedas (including Atharvaveda), Logic, Grammar , Medicine, Sankhya Philosophy etc. and discourses were given from 100 pulpits every day. ( Ref. 12 , p. 451 – 453 ).
Regarding the dates of the philosophical systems nothing definite is known. But in the opinion of the most competent authorities on the subject like Max Muller, Macdonell and others it may be stated, without the risk of any serious or adverse criticism, that the six systems of Hindu philosophy gradually took their shape from the time of Buddha (5th century B.C) to about 100 B.C., accompanied by the growth and expansion of Jainism and Buddhism.
Professor Macdonell in his ‘History of Sanskirt Literature’ remarks on this question of priority as follows:
“According to Greek tradition, Thales, Empedocles, Anaxagoras, Democritus and others undertook journeys to oriental countries in order to study philosophy. Hence, there is at least the historical possibility of the Greeks having been influenced by the Indian thought through Persia”.
Colebrooke too sums up his views in the following words : “ I should be disposed to conclude that the Indians were in this instance teachers than learners “ ( Trans. Roy. Asiatic Soc., Vol. I, p. 579).
Prof. H.H. Wilson in his preface to Samkhyakarika (1887, p. IX ) also observes :- “that the Hindus derived any of their philosophical ideas from the Greeks seems very improbable, and if there is any borrowing in the case, the latter were most probably indebted to the former”. ( Ref. 12 , p. 47, 48 )
Arthasashtra
The Arthasashtra not only provides for State management of large scale trade and industry , and exercise of effective control over every profession , occupation and even public amusement and entertainments , and prescribes it to be the duty of the State to protect the helpless, the aged , and the orphan , and save the people from effect of natural calamities, but it also lays down what should be the proper relations between husband and wife , father and son , brother and sister etc. at what age and under what conditions one might renounce the world and adopt the life of recluse or ascetic , when it was legitimate to use witchcraft for gaining the affection of wives or sweethearts , how to teach manners to refractory women etc. In short the State played an effective part over a man’s social, economic, cultural , moral and even spiritual life , and there was hardly any limit to its sphere of activity.
The large volume of external trade pre-supposes keen industrial activity all over the country. The army supplied occupation to quite a large number of people who served as foot soldiers ,charioteers , cavalry , and elephant – riders. They must have also supported such trade and industries as dealing in horses and elephants , and working in wood and metals in order to get the requisite supply of chariots , sea – going vessels, and weapons of war. The supply of wood and metals necessitated cleaning of forests and working of mines , and Kautilya lays down elaborate regulations for both. There was a royal officer called “ Akaradhyaksha” –Superintendent of Mines , possessing necessary scientific knowledge. Another royal officer , Superintendent of metals , looked to the manufacture of copper , lead , tin ,mercury , brass , bronze , bell – metal , and sulphurate of arsenic , as well as commodities made out of them. The Superintendent of Ocean – mines attended to the collection of conch-shells , diamonds , precious stones , pearls , corals , and salt , and also regulated the commerce in these commodities. The Superintendent of forest produce looked to the preservation and maintenance of forests, and the manufacturer of all kinds of wooden articles which were necessary for life or for the defence of forts . A very important industry, connected with this, was that of ship-building on a very large scale.
It would thus appear that the State carried on many industries and had a monopoly over some of them. To use modern phraseology there was a nationalization of mines, armaments, forests, salt and other industries. Besides, the State not only had its own factories for textiles, oils, sugar, etc. but exercised a fair degree of general control over private trade and industry. The Superintendent of Commerce fixed both wholesale and retail prices, and took effective steps against smuggling, adulteration, use of false weights, and speculation or ‘ cornering’ to enhance prices. The strike of workmen in order to increase wages was illegal. On the whole regulations concerning trade and industry in the Arthasastra have a surprisingly modern look. ( Ref.10, p. 143,214)
IX . Mathematics
In Mathematics and Astronomy Indian intellect reached a high level of success. The earliest scientific works were the Siddhantas (4th c. A.D.) of which only a portion has survived. Of the later scholars who developed the science, the more well – known are Aryabhata (born in 476 A.D )., Varahamihira (6th c. A.D.) .
Vedic Mathematics ( Ref. 14 )
The Vedas are well-known as four in number Rg, Yajur, Sama and Atharva, but they have also the four Upavedas and the six Vedangas all of which form an indivisible corpus of divine knowledge as it once was and as it may be revealed. The four Upavedas are as follows:
Ayurveda ( anatomy ,physiology , hygine , sanitary science , medical science , surgery etc.)
Gandharvaveda ( the science and art of music )
Danurveda ( archery and other military science )
Sthapatyaveda ( engineering , architecture etc. and art of branches of mathematics in general ).
In this list the Upaveda of Sthapatya or engineering comprises all kinds of architectural and structural human endeavour and all visual arts. Swamiji naturally regarded mathematics or the science of calculations and computations to fall under this category.
Vedic Mathematics deals mainly with various Vedic mathematical formulae and their applications for carrying out tedious and cumbersome arithmetical operations, and to a very large extent, executing them mentally.
Some people may find it difficult, at first reading, to understand the arithmetical operations although they have been explained very lucidly by Jagadguru Swami Sri Bharati Krsna Tirthaji Maharaj. It is not because the explanations are lacking in any manner but because the methods are totally unconventional. Some people are so deeply rooted in the conventional methods that they probably, subconsciously reject to see the logic in unconventional methods.( Ref.14, p xv ).
Vedic system does not academically countenance (or actually follow ) any automatic or mechanical rule even in respect of the correct sequence or order to be observed with regard to the various subjects dealt with in the various branches of Mathematics (pure and applied) but leaves it entirely to the convenience and the inclination, the option, the temperamental predilection and even the individual idiosyncrasy of the teachers and even the students themselves as to what particular order or sequence they should actually adopt and follow!
This seems to have been the real historical reason why, barring a few unavoidable exceptions in the shape of elementary, basic and fundamental first principles, almost all the subjects dealt with in the various branches those very ‘basic principles’ or ‘first principles’, with the natural consequence that no particular subject or subjects need necessarily precede or follow some other particular subject or subjects.
Subjects like analytical conics and even calculus differential and integral are found to figure and fit in at a very early stage in our Vedic Mathematics because of their being expounded and worked out on basic first principles.
Vedic sequence of subjects and chapters the most suitable for our purpose, namely, the eliminating from the children’s minds of all fear and hatred of mathematics and the implanting therein of a positive feeling of exuberant love and enjoyment thereof!. “Whatever is consistent with right reasoning should be accepted, even though it comes from a boy or even from a parrot; and whatever is inconsistent therewith ought to be rejected, although emanating from an old man or even from the great sage Sri Suka himself.” ( Ref.14 , p. xix –xxi).
“The importance of the creation of the zero mark can never be exaggerated. This giving of airy nothing not merely a local habitation and a name, a picture but helpful power is the characteristic of the Hindu race whence it sprang. It is like coining the Nirvana into dynamos. No single mathematical creation has been more potent for the general on-go of intelligence and power”. (Prof. G.P.Halsted)
“The Hindus adopted the decimal scale very early. The numerical language of no other nation is so scientific and has attained as high a state of perfection as that of the ancient Hindus. In symbolism they succeeded with ten signs to express any number most elegantly and simply. It is this beauty of the Hindu numerical notation which attracted the attention of all the civilized peoples of the world and charmed them to adopt it”. ( B.B.Dutta,The Indian Historical Quarterly , Vol.3 ,pages 530 – 540 ).
“The Hindu notation was carried to Arabia about 770 A. D. by a Hindu scholar named Kanka who was invited from Ujjain to the famous Court of Baghdad by the Abbaside Kalif All-Mansur. Kanka taught Hindu astronomy and mathematics to the Arabian scholars; and, with his help, they translated into Arabic the Brahma-Sphuta-Siddhanta of Brahama Gutpa. The recent discovery by the French savant M. F. Nau proves that the Hindu numerals were well-known and much appreciated in Syria about the middle of the seventh century A. D.”(Ginsberg’s “ New Light on our numerals “, Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society , Second series , Vol.25 , pages 366 -369 ).
“From Arabia, the numerals slowly marched towards the West through Egypt and Northern Arabia; and they finally entered Europe in the eleventh century. The Europeans called them the Arabic notations, because they received them from the Arabs. But the Arabs themselves, the Eastern as well as the Western, have unanimously called them the Hindu figures (All-Arqan-Al-Hindu)”. ( B.B.Dutta ).
Historians of Mathematics (of the lofty eminence of Pro. De Morgan etc.) have not been guilty of even the least exaggeration in their candid admission that “even the highest and farthest reaches of modern Western mathematics have not yet brought the Western world even the threshold of Ancient Indian Vedic Mathematics”. ( Ref.14 , p. xxxiii – xxxviii ).
Vedic Sutras to Mathematical Problems ( Ref.14 )
It is not possible to deal the vast subject of different Vedic Sutras to solve mathematical problems in this brief article. Only some basic examples are given below for understanding the concept.
The first method is by means of multiplication by 2 (which is the “Ekadhika Purva”, i.e. the number which is just one more than the penultimate digit in this case)
Here, for reasons which will become clear presently, we can know beforehand that the last digit of the answer is bound to be 1. For, the relevant rule hereon (explained at a later stage) stipulates that the last digit of the denominator and the last digit of the decimal equivalent of the fraction in question must invariably end in 9. Therefore, as the last digit of the denominator in this case is 9, it automatically follows that the digit of the decimal equivalent is bound to be 1.
Start with 1 as the last (i. e. the right-hand-most) digit of the answer and proceed leftward continuously by 2 (which is the Ekadhika Purva, i. e. one more than the penultimate digit of the denominator in this case) until a repletion of the whole operation stares us in the face and intimates to us that we are dealing with a Recurring Decimal and may therefore put up the usual recurring marks (dots) and stop further multiplication-work.
The second method is of division (instead of multiplication) by the self-same “Ekadhika Purva”, namely 2. And, as division is the exact opposite of multiplication, it stands to reason that the operation of division should proceed, not from right to left (as in the case of multiplication as expounded hereinbefore) but in the exactly opposite direction, i. e. from left to right.
Even this much or rather. this little work of mental multiplication or division is not really necessary. This will be self-evident from sheer observation.
Let us put down the first 9 digits of the answer in one horizontal row just below and observe the fun of it. We notice that each set of digits in the upper row and the lower row totals 9.
0 5 2 6 3 1 5 7 8
9 4 7 3 6 8 4 2 1
9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
And this means that, when just half the work has been completed by either of the Vedic one-line methods, the other half need not be obtained by the same process but is mechanically available to us by subtracting form 9 each of the digits already obtained! And this means a reduction of the work still further by 50%.
According to the Vedic system, the multiplication tables are not really required above 5x5. The Sutras reads: (Nikhilam Navatascaramam Dasatah) which, literally translated, means: “all from 9 and the last from 10”!
Similar arithmetical computations of all types – multiplication , division , factorization ,simple equations , quadratic equations ,cubic equations , biquadratic equations ,multiple simultaneous equations , factorization and differential calculus , partial fractions , recurring decimals , sum and difference of squares , square roots & cube roots etc. are dealt in vedic mathematics.
( Ref 14 , different pages ).
Listed here are some of the achievements of Hindus in the field of mathematics.
Pythagorean Theorem principle discovered (Baudhayana, Baudhayan Sulba Sutra, 600 BC, 1000 years before Pythagoras).
Decimal System (references dating back to 100 BC)
Prefixes for raising 10 to powers as high as 53 (references dating back to 100 BC)
Time taken by the earth to orbit the Sun calculated as 365.258756484 days (Bhaskaracharya, Surya Siddhanta 400-400 AD)
Law of Gravity (Bhaskaracharya, Surya Siddhanta 400-500 AD)
Calculation of Value of pi as a ratio of 62832/2000 (Aryabhatta, 497 AD)
Earth’s rotation about its axis, orbits around the Sun and is suspended in space (Aryabhatta, Aryabhateeyam, 500 AD)
Discovery of Zero (mentioned in Pangala, Chandra Sutra 200 AD)
References : Source of information
1. Convergence of Science and Hindu Philosophy - N.S. Prasad
Motilal Banarasidass, Indological Publishers & Distributors, New Delhi, 1989.
2. A Brief History of Time – Stephen Hawking
Bantam Books, 1997
3. Srimad Bhagwad Gita Bhasya of Sri Samkaracharya
translation by Dr.A.G.Krishna Warrier
Published by Sri RamaKrishna Math , Madras
4. The Tao of Physics – Fritjoj Capra
Wildwood House, Fontana / Collins, 1975
5. Founders of India’s Civilization – P.L. Bhargava
Ajanta Book International, Delhi, 2000
6. Eight Upanishads (with commentary from Sankaracharya ), Vol. I &II
Translated by Swami Gambhirananda
Advaita Ashram Publication, 1957
7. The Secret of the Veda – Sri Aurobindo
Sri Aurobindo Ashram , Pondichery, 1996
8. The Foundations of Indian Culture – Sri Aurobindo
Sri Aurobindo Ashram, Pondichery, 1988
9. The Upanishads an Anthology – D S. Sarma
Bharatiya Vidiya Bhavan, 1989
10. Ancient India – R.C. Majumdar
1952 ( Reprint 2003 ) Motilal Banarisidas, New Delhi
11. Indian Chemical Engineer – B. Muthuraman – July-Sept. 2004, p.177.
Published by Indian Institute of Chemical Engineers.
12. History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India
Edited by P. Ray , Published by Indian Chemical Society, Calcutta 1956.
13. Computing Science in Ancient India – T.R.N.Rao AND S. Kak
USL Press , Lafayette , 1998
14. Vedic Mathematics by Jagadguru Swami Sri Bharati KrsnaTirthaji Maharaja
Published by Motilal Banarasidas Publishers
15. Ayurveda will survive till Bharat breathes
Ashok K Tiwari
Current Science , Vol.9 , No. 12 ,25 June 2006
16. Modern Physics and Vedanta – Swami Jitatmananda
Published by Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan , 2004
17. The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda
Vol. 8, p 269
The Hindu philosopher link the notions of both space and time to particular states of consciousness. Being able to go beyond the ordinary state through mediation, they have realized that the conventional notions of space and time are not the ultimate truth.
What , then, is this new view of space and time which emerged from relativity theory ? It is based on the discovery that all space and time measurements are relative.
The real revolution that came with Einstein’s ( also contributed by H.Minkowski) theory……. was the abandonment of the idea that the space-time coordinate system has objective significance as a separate physical entity. Instead of this idea, relativity theory implies of a language that is used by an observer to describe his environment . ( Space Time and Elementary Interactions in Relativity - .Sachs , Physics Today , Vol. 22,1969 , p 53) ( Ref. 3 ,p 173 ).
This statement from a contemporary physicist shows the similarity between the notions of space and time in modern physics and those held by the Eastern philosopher who say, as quoted before, that space and time ‘ are nothing but names, forms of thought, words of common usage’.
All these relativistic effects only seem strange because we cannot experience the four-dimensional space-time world with our senses, but can only observe its three- dimensional projections. These images have different aspects in different frames of reference; moving objects look different from objects at rest, and moving clocks run at a different rate. These effects will seem paradoxical if we do not realize that they are only the projections of four –dimensional phenomena, just as shadows are projections of three-dimensional objects ( Lorentz transformation ). If we could visualize the four-dimensional space-time reality, there would be noting paradoxical at all. ( Ref. 3 , p 178 ).
The Hindu sages, as mentioned above, seem to be able to attain non-ordinary states of consciousness in which they transcend the three –dimensional world of everyday life to experience a higher, multidimensional reality. Thus Aurobindo speaks about ‘a subtle change which makes the sight see in a sort of fourth dimension’ ( Sri Aurobindo , The Synthesis of Yoga , p 993 ). The dimensions of these states of consciousness may not be the same as the ones we are dealing with in relativistic physics, but it is striking that they have led the mystics towards notions of space and time which are very similar to those implied by relativity theory.
Throughout Hindu philosophy, there seems to be a strong intuition for the ‘space-time’ character of reality. The fact that space and time are inseparably linked, which is so characteristic of relativistic physics, is stressed again and again. This intuitive notion of space and time has, perhaps, found its clearest expression and its most far-reaching elaboration in Buddhism, and in particular in the Avatamsaka school of Mahayana Buddhism.
The equation of Lorentz Transformation shows :
Space co-ordinate includes time and Time co-ordinates include space;
X – Vt t – x V / C 2
x’ = ----------- ; t’ = ------------------ where r = 1 - V 2 / C 2
r r
The significance of the Avatamsaka and its philosophy is unintelligible unless we once experience… a state of complete dissolution where there is no more distinction between mind and body, subject and object…..We look around and perceive that….every object is related to every other object… not only spatially, but temporally. … As a fact of pure experience, there is no space without time, no time without space; they are interpenetrating .( Mahayana Buddhisim – D.T.Suzuki , p 33, )( Ref. 3 , p 179 ).
We can define a curved three-dimensional space to be one in which Euclidean geometry is no longer valid. The laws of geometry in such a space will be of a different, ‘non-Euclidean’ type. Such a non-Euclidean geometry was introduced as a purely abstract mathematical idea in the nineteenth century by the mathematician George Riemann, Nikolai Lobachevsky and others like Bolyai , Poincare etc. and it was not considered to be more than that, until Einstein made the revolutionary suggestion that the three-dimensional space in which we live is actually curved. According to Einstein’s theory, the curvature of space is caused by the gravitational fields of massive bodies. (Ref.3, p 184).
Times does not flow at the same rate as in ‘flat space-time’, and as the curvature varies from place to place, according to the distribution of massive bodies, so does the flow of time.
As the star collapses and becomes more and more dense, the force of gravity on its surface becomes stronger and stronger, and consequently the space-time around it becomes more and more curved. Because of the increasing force of gravity, on the star’s surface, it becomes more and more difficult to get away from it, and eventually the star reaches a stage where nothing-not even light-can escape from its surface. At that stage, we say that an ‘event horizon’ forms around that star, because no signal can get away from it to communicate any event to the outside world. The space around the star is then so strongly curved that all the light is trapped in it and cannot escape. We are not able to see such a star, because its light can never reach us and for this reason it is called a black hole. (Ref. 3 , p 186).
Black holes are among the most mysterious and most fascinating objects of relativity theory in a most spectacular way. The strong curvature of space-time around them prevents not only all their light from reaching us, but has an equally striking effect on time.
The Hindu sages, too, talk about an extension of their experience of the world in higher states of consciousness, and they affirm that these states involve a radically different experience of space and time. They emphasize not only that they go beyond ordinary three-dimensional space in meditation, but also-and even more forcefully – that the ordinary awareness of time is transcended. Instead of a linear succession of instants ( instants are of momentary duration , therefore the “ Present “ ), they experience – so they say – an infinite, timeless, and yet dynamic present.
What is the origin of this world?”
“Space,” he replied “For all these creatures take their rise from space, and they return to space. Space is indeed greater than these. Space is the ultimate abode.
“That which is Infinite-that, indeed, is happiness. There is no happiness in anything that is finite. The Infinite alone is happiness. But this Infinite one must desire to understand”.
“Where one sees nothing else, hears nothing else, understands nothing else-that is the Infinite. Where one sees something else, hears something else, understands something else, hears something else, understands something else-that is the finite. The Infinite indeed is immortal, the finite is mortal.
“The Infinite indeed is below. It is above. It is behind. It is in front. It is to the south, it is to the north. It is indeed all this.
“Next follows the explanation of the Infinite as I. I am below, I am above, I am behind, I am in front. I am to the south. I am to the north. I am indeed all this.
“Next follows the explanation of the Infinite as the Self. The Self indeed is below. The Self is above. The Self is behind. The Self indeed is below. The Self is above. The Self is behind. The Self is in front. The Self is to the south. The Self is to the north. The Self indeed is all this.
He who has neither beginning nor end, who in the midst of chaos has created all things and who, having many forms, pervades alone the universe-knowing Him one is freed from all fetters.
Full is that, and full is this. Out of the full comes the full. When from the full, the full is taken, the full itself remains. (Ref. 8 , p 116,168,169,263,271)
Atomic Theory and Hindu Philosophy
The Ayurvedic period ( Circa 600 BC – 800 AD ) constitutes the most flourishing and fruitful age of India relating to accumulation and development of chemical science which was then associated with medicine.
Two of the theory of cosmogenesis deserve particular mention in this connection. One has been described by Samkhya system of Hindu philosophies ( Circa 500 BC ) and the other in the Chandogya Upanishad.
Samkhya theory of cosmogony may be represented as based on the principles of conservation , transformation and dissipation of energy, as also on the consumption of space ( Desa ) and time ( Kala ). The idea of causality has also been elaborated in advanced manner.
According to Samkhya the universe, as it is manifested to us, is evolved out of an unmanifested cosmic nature termed prakriti or avyakta, the ultimate ground. The latter is defined as an infinite, eternal, ubiquitous, indestructible, indifferentiated, indeterminate continuum. This was believed to be made up of infinitestmal reals or gunas, representing substantive entities. These entities are classified under three heads distinguished as sattva, the essence or intelligence-stuff, rajas, the energy-stuff, and tamas, the inertia or matter-stuff. These three gunas exist together in equilibrium or uniform diffusion in the infinite continuum, prakriti. It is indeed intriguing to note here that Samkhya , prakriti. It is indeed intriguing to note here that Samkhya attributes the character of both quantum ( parichchhinnatva ) and continuity or extension ( pariman ) to the energy-stuff as well as to the matter-stuff. It bears resemblance to our modern conception of energy and matter. In the beginning the cosmic nature or prakriti, the continuum, was in a state of perfect equipoise with all its gunas or stuffs in equilibrium of uniform diffusion. This represented the process of cosmic evolution under arrest. The process of evolution was then initiated by a disturbance of this equilibrium through the transcendental or magnetic influence exerted on the slumbering prakriti by purusha, the Absolute, often designated as the Soul, the atman , or the transcendental self. Purusha or atman is incapable of modification or affectation of any kind either as subject of object. The disturbance of the original equilibrium in the prakriti led to an unequal aggregation or collection of gunas, which represented a creative transformation accompanied gunas, which represented a creative transformation accompanied by evolution of motion ( parispanda ). This evolution has been defined in Samkhya as the process of differentiation in the integrated whole. This proceeds in accordance with a definite law which it cannot violate or overstep.
The conception of space (desa) and time kala), and the idea of causality, As elaborated in Samkhya, are of a surprisingly advanced character.
The conception of cosmic evolution as advanced in the Chhandogya Upanishad is of an entirely different character. According to this, the universe in the beginning existed, so to stay, in a highly refined or potential form like a seed or an embryo. This then changed into a grosser stuff, ap (water), which latter again changed into a still grosser body, egg. This egg, after a period of maturing, burst into two pieces, which gave rise to two worlds, The Heaven and Earth. This is obviously a very crude picture, but curiously enough, bears some resemblance to the modern theory of evolution based on the idea of expanding universe.
Kapila, the reputed originator of the Samkhya philosophy, developed his ideas about the ultimate particles of matter in the latter part of his theory of cosmogenesis. According to him five subtle or infra-atomic particles, named as tanmatras and imperceptible to human senses, were derived from the conscious principle, human senses, were derived from the conscious principle, bhutadi – the super-subtile homogeneous mater rudiment, as a result of continued differentiation and unequal aggregation. These subsequently gave rise, by the same process, to the five grosser elements ( bhutas) :- space or ether (akasa), air (vayu), fire (tejas), water (ap) and earth (kshiti). These five types of grosser elements should not be confounded with five different elementary substance in the usual sense. They are regarded as representing five abstract principles, or rather a classification of substances on the basis of their properties and states of aggregation. For instance, earth, water and air may be viewed as comprising all the so-called elements or compounds of chemistry. Thus, kshiti typifies all solids, ap all liquids, and vayu all gases. According to Samkhya, atoms (anus) of these grosser (elements are composite units made up of infra-atomic particles ( tanmatras). The difference in the properties of the same bhuta (class is attributed by Samkhya to a difference in the grouping of tanmatras in the atoms (anus). The atomic theory of Samkhya bears a great resemblance to the Greek theory of elements introduced by Empedocles ( 490-430 B.C).
Kanada, the founder of the Vaiseshika system of Indian philosophy, chiefly occupied himself with the study of the properties of matter and the nature of atoms and molecules. The atomic hypothesis, as propounded by him, has many points in common with that of the Greek philosopher Democritus ( 470 – 360 B.C). Almost identical views are expressed in the Nyaya system of Hindu philosophy.
The distinguishing feature of the chemical theory of the Nyaya – Vaiseshika system is the theory of anus or atoms. They are comparable to tanmatras of the Samkhya philosophy. The idea has been fully worked out by Kanada in the Vaiseshika.
Akasa (ether), according to Kanada, has no atomic structure; it is inert and ubiquitous serving only as the substratum of sound which is supposed to travel in the form of waves in the manifesting medium of vayu (air ). Samkhya too conceived of akasa as the universal all –pervading medium in which air , light and heat corpuscles, and other atoms move and float about. Kanada, therefore, recognizes four kinds of atoms ; viz., the kshiti, the ap, the tejas and the vayu atoms, which correspond to the atoms of four gross elementary types of matter, - earth, water, fire and air, as taught by the Greek philosophers. Regarding light and heat Kanada makes the remarkable statement that they are only the different forms of one and the same essential entity, tejas. Kanada attributes to these atoms certain characteristic properties, such as number, quantity, individuality, mass, gravity, fluidity, velocity, elasticity, as well as certain characteristic potentials of sense stimuli like colour, taste, smell or touch. According to him atoms are eternal and indestructible, though they cannot exist in free or uncombined state. As an aggregate or in the combined state they are, however, transient.
The characteristic of Kanada’s atomic theory is the assumption of the atoms as the indivisible ultimate particles of matter with eternal like . they are thus indestructible. Though eternal in themselves, they are, however, non-eternal as aggregates.
The atomic theory of the Jainas (circa 40 A.D.) is characterized by a very remarkable and interesting contribution to the subject of chemical combination. It relates to their analysis of atomic linking and the mutual attraction or repulsion of atoms in the formation of molecules. The Jaina system of philosophy holds that the different classes of elementary substances ( bhutas) are all made up of the same primordial atoms. Hence , the same kind of interatomic forces is involved in the formation of chemical compounds, as well as of molecules, from atoms. ( Ref. 11, p 40-47 )
Vedanta and Physics (Ref. 16 )
Albert Einstein dreamed of “Unified –field theory “ – a single force out of which all other forces in this universe have been made. Physicist are trying to built a picture of our universe immediately after 10 –43 second of Big -Bang . Democretus , Greece Philosopher , thought of “ Atomos” to be the ultimate building block of matter ; today this has spread in to more than 200 sub –atomic particles.
Famous Physicist Stephen Hawkins admitted “ its seems very reasonable to suppose that there may be some unifying principles , so that all laws are part of some bigger law. So what we are trying to find out is whether there is some bigger law from which all other laws can be derived. I think you can ask that question whether or not you believe in God (New York Times magazine , 23 Jan. 1983 , p 53).
When the first atom bomb trial was carried out in the desert of Alamogordo a huge dazzling conflagration emerged up in the sky, from where Oppenhemer was standing far away, started attiring the lines from the Gita.
If the radiance of a ten thousands suns
Were to burst into the sky
That would perhaps be like
The splendour of the Mighty One.
That was a moment of great significance when Western science converged towards Eastern Vedanta , as A.D Reincourt says in his book , The Eye of Shiva.
Nobel physicist Schroedinger, writing on the growing importance of consciousness in Quantum Physics, declared:
In all the world there is no kind of framework within which we find consciousness in the plural. This is simply something we construct because of the temporal plurality of the individuals. But it is a false construction….The only solution to this conflict, in so far as any is available to us at all, lies in the ancient wisdom of the Upanisad. (My View of World – Erwin Schroedinger )
…Can a connection between the scientific and mystical frames of reference be established over and beyond a certain metaphysical parallelism ? The answer lies in the fact that Indian mysticism, at least as far as its leading representatives are concerned, has evolved as much in the past hundred years as the science of physics itself, in a direction that points towards an inevitable convergence of the two. (The Eye of Shiva)
New particles are created by collision of non particles at extremely high velocity nearing to that of light ( Feynmann’s diagrams ) . The endless process of destruction and creation of sub atomic particles is going on at outer space. Prof. Capra has compared this with the dance of God Nataraja Siva who is the protector of Uma (means Earth ) and all the creatures with his four hands.
The right upper hand holds a drum to symbolize the primary sound of creation in the universe.
The left upper hand bears a tongue of flame symbolizing the destruction of harmful cosmic particle from outer space.
The right lower hand is raised in the sign of – ‘Do not be afraid . I am protecting you all’.
The left lower hand points down to the ‘uplifted foot’ which symbolizes surrender at the feet of Siva – the protector. (Ref. 4, p 244)
Thousands of years ago the Upanisad realize the fundamental truth the entire Universe is one, interconnected and interpenetrated by the ultimate reality which they termed Brahman. “That reality, O Gargy ‘ has interpenetrated the whole universe , says the Sage Yajanvalkya. (Ref.6, Brhadaramyaka Upanisad 3.8.8)
Says Swami Vivekananda:
‘One atom in this universe cannot move without dragging the whole world along with it. There cannot be any progress without the whole world following in the wake, and it is becoming everyday clearer that the solution of any problem can never the attained on racial, or national, or narrow ground. Every idea has to become broad till it covers the whole of this world, every aspiration must go on increasing till it has engulfed the whole humanity, nay the whole of life within its scope.’ (Ref. 17, Vol 3., p 269)
The Theory of Relativity has proved the relative nature of all matter. Quantum physics has shown that matter has no purely objective reality. Particle physics has shown that the concept of a separate, individual, isolated piece of matter does not exist.
While Heisenberg was working on Quantum theory, he went to India to lecture and he was a guest of Tagore. He talked a lot with Tagore about Indian philosophy. Heisenberg told me that these talks had helped him a lot with his work in physics, because they showed him that all these new ideas in Quantum theory were in fact not all that crazy. He realized there was, in fact, a whole culture that subscribed to very similar ideas. Heisenberg said that this was a great help for him. (Niels Bohr had a similar experience when he went to China.)
Maya & Space-time
One of the fundamental concepts of Advaita Vetanta is its theory of Maya . Swami Vivekananda correctly characterized it as “ a statement of fact “
Samkara had identified Maya with space, time and causation –desa, kala, nimitta. Swami Vivekananda followed Samkara’s theory of Maya but gave it a thoroughly modern logical formulation. Long before Einstein, he clearly stated the relativity of time and space. In the following statement he advances concepts which come so very close to those of Einstein.
The one peculiar attribute we find in time, space and causation is that they cannot exist separate from things. Try to think of space without colour or limits or any connection with the things around – just abstract space. You cannot. You have to think of it as the space between two limits, or between three objects. It has to be connected with some object to have any existence. So with time; you cannot have any idea of abstract time (or absolute time, as Einstein put it – author ) but you have to take two events by the idea of succession. Time depends on two events, just as space has to be related to outside objects. And the idea of causation is inseparable form time and space. (Ref. 17, Vol 2, p 135-136)
Michael Talbot in his book entitled, Mysticism and New Physics, compares the space-time concepts of Vivekananda with those of the father of space-time continuum idea, Herman Minkowski. After quoting Vivekananda’s idea of space time Talbot writes.
The remark was originally made by mystic S. Vivekananda in Jnana Yoga, but the fact that the names of the mathematician who first theorized that space and time are a continuum, Herman Minkowski, and the greatest of the historical Brahmin sages, confluence of mysticism and the new physics. (Ref. 16, p 69-70)
It seems obvious that the author mistakes the term ‘Advaita’ for the name of a person. But the similarity between the ideas of Vivekananda and those Minkowski strike him deeply, and Talbot continues,
Vivekananda further expresses a view that has become the backbone of quantum theory. There is no such thing as strict causality.
While Heisenberg asserted that the outcome of any microphysical experiment is linked with the mind of the scientist, Eugene Wigner, Nobel physicist in 1961, went a step further and asserted that ‘it is impossible to give description of quantum mechanical principle without explicit reference to consciousness. Einstein said, ‘But the creative principle resides in mathematics. In a certain sense, therefore, I hold it true that pure thought can grasp reality as the ancients dreamed’.
Vivekananda told his western audience more than eighty years ago.
Though an atom is invisible, unthinkable, yet in it are the whole power and potency of the universe. That is exactly what the Vedantist says of Atman. (Ref.17, Vol 7, p 50)
The world is homogeneous, and modern science shows beyond doubt that each atom is composed of the same material as the whole universe…. Man is the most representative being in the universe, the microcosm, a small universe in himself. (Ref.17, Vol 4, p 49)
Nearly half a century later Schrodinger echoes these very ideas in his Cambridge lectures on modern physics.
In Christian terminology to say’, writes Schrodinger, ‘ “Hence I am God Almighty” sounds both blasphemous and lunatic. But please disregard these connotations for the moment and consider the above reference (that the individual is identical with the Cosmic I or Atman = Brahman ) is not the closest a biologist can get to proving God and immortality at a stroke’. (Ref. 16, p 88)
Rg-Vedic Hymn of Creation known as the Nasadiya-suktam was translated by Swami Vivekananda , the first three stanzas are given below: (Ref. 16, p 105)
Existence was not then, nor non-existence,
The world was not, the sky beyond was neither.
What covered the mist ? Of whom was that?
Death was not then, nor immortality,
The night was neither separate from day,
But motionless did That vibrate
Alone, with Its own glory one-
Beyond That nothing did exist.
At first in darkness hidden darkness lay,
Undistinguished as one mass of water,
Then That which lay in void thus covered
A glory did put forth by Tapah.
VI . Metallurgy
The Indus Valley has been the cradle of a glorious civilization; and it is believed that India was one of the earliest civilizations to use iron.
The Rig Veda – universally accepted as the earliest collection of hymns in Sanskrit – mentions the word Ayas many times to mean one of several metals, viz. iron, copper and gold in different contexts. One school of thought believes that Ayas only means iron and not copper or gold.
It is generally believed that Asia Minor was the region where the first smelting operations of iron ore were carried out between 1800 and 1200 BC and by about 1000 BC, iron was extensively used even as far as the near East. Contrary to common belief that copper was the first metal extracted by man from its ore, it has been stated in many references available in ancient India that lead was the first metal to be extracted, about 9000 years ago.
In India, the advent of copper technology is believed to be about 1000 years younger than that of iron. The earliest Iron Age sites in India are in Ganges Valley dating to the early centuries of the first millennium BC. The archaeological evidence gathered suggests that the use of iron in North India was in an experimental stage at that time – it slowly percolated to the South by around 1100-900 BC. Whatever be the exact date, it can definitely be stated that iron was in use in India around the first millennium BC, well before its use was known in other parts of the world.
Vivid descriptions are to be found of this epic battle, where iron swords, spears, axes and arrows were extensively used. The iron mace of Bhima has received special mention in the Mahabaharata. It has been stated that the blind King Dhiritarastra broke to pieces, in great agony, a life size iron statue of Bhima. Such accounts give concrete proof of the wide use of iron in weaponry days of yore.
The famous Iron Pillar of Meharauli near the Kutub Minar in Delhi has attracted considerable attention in view of its excellent preservation over 15 centuries. From a consideration of the script and the text of the inscription on the pillar, is believed to have been constructed sometime in the early 4th century A.D. during the reign of the King Chandravarman of Pushkarana, Rajputana as a pillar of victory or is a memorial to a king , probably Chandragupta II , who ruled India between 376 and 415 AD. The Pillar is over seven meters tall and weighs about seven tons. It is said that it would not have possible to produce an object of this magnitude with the then existing state of knowledge even in Europe. ( Ref.11, p 177 & Ref. , p 99 ).
An analysis of the iron in this Pillar has revealed that it contains 99.72% iron, 0.80% carbon, 0.46% silicon, 0.006% sulphur and 0.114% phosphorus, with no manganese. The absence of corrosion has been attributed to the rather high phosphorus and the negligible sulphur and manganese contents as also to the dry weather conditions in the environs of Delhi. The nature of the dense iron of the pillar, its microstructure, the good forge welding employed and the relatively low degree of cold working have also contributed to corrosion resistance. ( Ref. 11 , p. 177 -178 )
The weight of the pillar has been estimated to exceed 6 tons. Analysis of the specimens of the material of the pillar has proved that it is made of wrought iron without any alloy. Specific gravity of the metal, as given by Hadfield, is 7.81, that of the purest wrought iron being 7.84. Absence of manganese is significant. Low percentage of sulphur indicates the use of charcoal as fuel, as also the purity of the ore. The pillar has wonderfully withstood the influence of rain and air for over fifteen centuries without giving any sign of rust formation. ( Ref. 12 , p 100 ) .
Expert observers of all classes are of opinion that this pillar presents an indisputable and permanent record of marvelous metallurgical skill an engineering ability of the ancient Indian workers, which can reasonably claim unstinted admiration even of our present time. According to the opinion of the experts the pillar was constructed by welding short pieces of wrought iron previously forged into shapes. ( Ref.12 , p 100 ).
Iron beams of wrought iron as also iron pieces were used in the construction of the famous Sun Temple at Konarak in Orissa dating back to the 13th century AD. The forging of the beams is not so perfect as in the case of the Delhi pillar and have rusted extensively.
The early process of iron smelting gave wrought iron, which was soft and malleable but did not harden, as it did not have enough carbon. It is believed that Wootz steel was first made in Southern India. The world Wootz was probably derived from the Kannada word ukku, meaning steel .
Indian ‘Wootz’ steel became very well known when it was used for making Damascus blades, which became famous in Europe. In making Damascus steel, soft iron pieces were piled on pieces of high carbon iron and were then heated and forged . The layering that resulted from incomplete diffusion from the high carbon to the low carbon pieces, gave rise to the surface appearance called carbon pieces, gave rise to the surface appearance called “watering”, which was a characteristic of the Damascus steel. ( Ref. 11 , p 178 )
The findings at the Indus Valley site prove that the metal workers of two capital cities of Mohenjo-daro and Harappa were very skilful and there was plentiful supply of Copper, Silver and Gold. Uses of lead and tin were not uncommon though the latter metal occurred always alloyed with copper in the form of bronze. (Ref. 12 , p 24 )
Forging and casting technique was used in Indus Valley metallurgy. Small percentage of tin and arsenic were used as deoxidizing agent to cast molten copper avoiding sponginess due to bubbles of free oxygen. Copper alloyed with arsenic was also used at Mohenjo – daro and Harappa. (Ref. 12, p 26 ) . Articles made of gold – silver alloy, electrum, have been found in Mohenjo-daro. (Ref. 12 ,p 29 ).
The Indus Valley culture, based on complicated urban organization, constituted, so to say, a land mark in the annals of early Bronze Age Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BC. In the Rigveda, we find mention of only gold, silver, copper and bronze among metals. In Bramhanas and Upanishads, which were of later date than Vedas ( 800 BC – 500 BC), we find that the word ayas has been differentiated into lohitayas or red-metal and krishnayas or black metals. No articles of iron has been found in the excavation of Harappa or Mohenjo-daro. (Ref. 12 ,p 35 )
In Yajurveda we find mention of six metals – ayas (gold), hiranya (silver), loha (copper), shyama (iron), sis (lead ), and trapu (tin ). (Ref. 12 , p 36 )
The achievements of the ancient Indians in metallurgy and working of metals as illustrated by many ancient and historic monuments still extant in many parts of India.( Ref. 12 , p 90 ).
Copper
A solid copper bolt, apparently shaped into form by hammer after being cast, has been found in the Rampurwa Asoka pillar near the frontier of Nepal. Historical evidences indicate that it is a product of the third century B.C.
The famous Chinese traveler Hiuen Tsang has left a description of a colossal copper statue of Buddha, 80 ft. in height which he found standing upright near about the famous Nalanda convent in Bihar. According to the Chinese traveler this gigantic copper image, which would approach the bronze colossus of Rhodes island in dimensions, requires a pavilion of six stages to cover it. It is believed to have been constructed during the reign of Raja Purnavarman, the last descendant of King Asoka, a king of the 7th century A.D.
There are numerous evidences about the use of copper in early days in India in the form of coins issued by the Greek and Bactrian kings of the 3rd century B.C., as well as by the Kushan kings like Kanishka and his successors in the 2nd century A.D., and by the Gupta kings of the following periods. There are ample evidences of copper being smelted on an extensive scale in ancient India. In the Singbhum and Hazaribagh districts of Chotanagpur it is believed, on geological evidences , that copper was mined and extracted some two thousand years ago.
Excavations at Taxila have revealed a large number of articles of copper, bronze, brass and lead dating from the 5th century B.C. to the 6th century A.D. These consist mostly of ornaments, toilet articles, household vessels, surgical and other
Instruments of the Kushan period . Analysis of these by the archaeological chemists Mr. Sanaullah and Dr. Hamid were carried out . From a consideration of the analytical results it may be concluded that the composition of soft copper, which was employed for hammered work, shows that the metal was generally of great purity, sometimes reaching 99.7 percent. Bronze, containing 21-25 percent of tin was preferred for casting domestic utensils and other articles. This was due obviously to its easy fusibility; as bronze containing 8-12 percent tin, which possesses much greater strength but higher melting point, was employed to a much less extent. Casting in closed moulds or cire perdue process was extensively practiced.
Brass appears to have been introduced in Northern India quite early, probably through Chinese trade; but it was later manufactured in India also, by heating copper with calamine and carbonaceous matter. Solders have also been recovered from some of the copper and bronze vessels found at Taxila. The results of their analysis show that lead and its alloy with tin in equal proportions were used for ordinary soldering. The discoveries at Taxila leave no doubt that metal industries flourished in India in the first millennium B.C. and that the metallurgical skill had attained a high level during this epoch.
Steel has been prepared and used in India from remote ages. There is no dearth of evidences regarding the high quality of Indian iron and steel of ancient and medieval times. Thus Ktesias, who was at the Court of Persia in the 5th century B.C., mentions two remarkable swords of Indian steel presented to him by the king of Persia and his mother.
A large number of surgical instruments described in the Ayurvedic treatise of Susruta also furnish indisputable evidence in support of this view. J.M. Heath, in an article ( Journal of Royal Asiatic Society, 1839, Vol. V, 395 ) refers to the fact that according to Quintus Curtius a present of steel weighing about 30 lb. was made to Alexander the Great by the Indian Chief, Porus, whose country he had invaded. Obviously, steel must have been regarded as an article of great value in those days. It is believed that the Indian steel was exported to the Western Countries as early as about 2000 years ago. Steel was produced in ancient India by a process resembling the modern cementation or crucible process. ( Ref. 12 , p 90 –102 )
VII. Chemistry
Pre- Harappan period – In a cemetery at Nal a flat copper axe was found besides many pottery vessels and beads in certain areas and two hoards of copper implements were observed at another place. These are from Pre-Harappan period. It’s analysis gave a composition of Copper – 93.05%, Lead – 2.14%, Nickel 4.80% & Arsenic – trace. The high percentage of nickel is rather significant. ( Ref. 12 , p 2 ). At Harappa , a dark red variety of earthenware bangle sample has been found . Analysis of one of the specimens showed combination of Silica , Alumina , Ferrous & Ferric oxide, Manganese oxide , Magnesia , Lime & Alkalies. ( Ref. 12 , p 14 )
References are found in Rig Veda about the preparation and tanning of leather. People were acquainted with the art of dying with certain natural vegetable colouring material. ( Ref. 12 , p 36 )
Chemistry in Kautilya
Ayurveda means science of life ; and it is believed that Atharvaveda, which deals with recipes for prolongation of life, has given birth to it.
The earliest and most authentic record of information relating to the knowledge of chemistry, metallurgy and medicine of these early days is found in the Arthashastra ( Treatise on Polity ) of Kautilya which gives a magnificent account of the political, social, industrial, civil and military organizations of the 4th century B.C. (321-296 B.C). A very comprehensive account of ores, minerals and metals with their extraction and working, as well as of alloys, is found in the Arthashastra.
The description of the ores of gold, silver, copper, lead, tin and iron , is found in the Arthashastra.
“The impurities of ores, whether superficial or inseparably combined with them, can be got rid of and the metal melted when the ores are treated ( chemically) with iron (tikshna), alkalies (plant ashes ), etc.
A rather detailed description of the properties of gold and silver, and of their working has been given by Kautilya. “ Gold may be obtained either pure or amalgamated with mercury or silver, or alloyed with other impurities as mine gold.” “Pure gold combined with an equal quantity of lead and heated with rock salt to the melting point under dry cow-dung becomes the basis of gold alloys of blue, red, white, yellow, parrot and pigeon colours.
Kautilya describes further the preparation of a large variety of gold alloys with different quantities of copper and silver. The process of assaying has also been mentioned and stressed upon. Kautilya further gives a graphic account of the methods employed by the goldsmiths for the adulteration and stealing of gold by substituting baser metals for it.
Various kinds of liquors described are :
Medaka, prasanna, asava, arista, maireya, and madhu
Medaka is prepared from the fermentation of rice; prasanna from the fermentation of flour with the addition of spices and the fruits of putraka ( a species of tree in the country of Kamrupa). Asava is the liquor derived from the fermentation of sugar mixed with honey. Jaggery mixed with powder of long and black pepper or with the powder of triphala mixture of Terminalia chebula, Terminalia belerica, and Phyllanthus emblica), when fermented, forms maireya. Fermented grape juice is termed madhu. The preparation of different kinds of arista for different diseases can be learn from the physicians.
From a survey of the information contained in the Arthashastra, so far as it concerns us, we find that there was a considerable advancement in the knowledge of metals and their working. Methods for the large scale production of metals like gold, silver, copper, iron, tin, lead and mercury and of alloys like brass, bronze, and those of gold and silver with baser metals were known.
We now come to a time when the Hindu system of medicine was methodized and arranged more or less on a rational basis, with a scientific terminology. The two earliest and most renowned treatises of the period are the Charaka and the Susruta, by sages of the same names, dealing respectively with medicine and surgery in the main. They constitute the repositories of many chemical information of the time. These treatises, usually known as the Charaka Samhita and the Susruta Samhita, passed through repeated recensions by later and more advanced workers. The theories and discussions in the Charaka and the Susruta, particularly in the Charaka, are based on the doctrines of the Samkhya system of philosophy, combined with a methodology derived from the Nyaya- Vaiseshika system. The Charaka, however, is not so systematic as the Susruta, but indulges often in random and irrelevant discourses. In the Charaka Samhita we find that the author is inordinately fond of metaphysical disquisitions in preference to experiments and observations. The Susruta in this respect is far more scientific than the Charaka.
Agnivesa, whose work formed that basis of the Charaka Samhita, was the disciple of Atreya, who, according to a Buddhist Jataka, was a teacher of medicine in the University of Takshasila (Taxila ) during the age of Buddha.
From the considerations set forth above, it might be concluded that there should be little hesitation in placing the original work of Charaka in the early Buddhistic era, though P.C. Ray in his History of Hindu Chemistry prefers to place it in the pre-Buddhistic era.
As regards the age of the Susruta the evidences are, however, comparatively definite. The extant Susruta is generally believed to be a comparatively modern recension by the celebrated Buddhist chemist, Nagarjuna (8th century A.D) who is said to have added the Uttaratantra or the Supplement. The Susruta is par excellence a treatise on surgery as the Charaka is on medicine proper. According to a Buddhist Jataka, Susruta was a teacher in the University of Kasi (Banaras ) during Buddha’s time and was a younger contemporary of Atreya.
According to Charaka all objects are the results of the combination of five elements, viz., earth, water, fire, air and ether or space. Five kinds of salts are described in the Charaka. These are sauvarchala (nitre), saindhava ( rock salt), vit (black salt), audbhida (vegetable salt ) and samudra (sea salt ). Minerals like sulphate of copper, sulphate of iron, realgar, orpiment and sulphur have been prescribed in combination with vegetable drugs for use as external application in many skin disease.
Dealing with the preparation and use of alkalies and alkaline caustics Susruta makes the following remarkable observations.
“Of all cutting instruments and necessary cutting instruments, caustics are superior in as much as they perform the work of incisions, punctures and scarifications, relieve derangement of three humours and uniformly affect the diseased part to which they are applied. Kashara (caustics ) are so called because they remove diseased parts and destroy the skin and flesh. They possess burning escharotic and lacerating properties. Caustics are acrid , hot and pungent. Neutralization of the alkali by an acid has also been described by Susruta. (Ref. 12, p 49-65 )
Glass
The knowledge of chemistry as involved in various practical arts were developed by the ancient Indians during the Ayurvedic period.
Kautilya has made mention of glass ( Kacha ) beads in connects with some ornamental work with gold ( Kshepana ) . The Indians of Kautilya’s time were , therefore, acquainted with process of glass making. Glass ( Kacha ) was differentiated from crystal ( sphatika ) as early as in the days of Susruta . Pliny also referred to the glass of India as superior to all others.
Chemical analysis of some of the kopia glasses were made by P. Roy of the Central Glass & Ceramic Research Institute, Calcutta. One characteristic features of all these pieces is that they are soda-lime glasses containing a high percentage of Alumina.
The earliest specimen of true glass in India according to Marshall was found at the Taxila in the Bhir mound ( circa 5ht century B.C) . The pottery at Taxila (of circa 150-200 A.D ) was highly developed and sophisticated as can be judged from the quality and finish of the wares. (Ref. 11, p.73 )
Dyes and Paints
Among the dyes or colours used by the ancient Indians we find mention of indigo (nila), lac (laksha), turmeric ( halidda), maddar (menjetthi ) and resin (rajana ) in a passage in Samyutta Nikaya (part III, p. 152) where Buddha makes an incidental reference to them. The great Sanskrit grammarian, Panini (c. 500 B.C.) also makes mentions of indigo, lac and redochre for dyening cloth.
Contents of an ink-pot recovered at Taxila were found on examination by the archaeological chemist to contain black carbon mixed with earth. This provides an instance of the use of carbon ink in the Kushan period (Archaeological Report, 1929, 30, 209 ).
According to some authorities ink was used in India already during the 4th century B.C. The relic-vase of the stupa of Andher, believed to be of the second century B.C., contains inscriptions written with ink on its surface. ( Ref. 12, p 104).
Cosmetics
In the Vrihat Samhita there is also some allusion to hair dyes, cosmetics, frankincense and scents. There is a chapter on perfumery where various recipes for artificial imitation of natural flower scents such as the essence of vakula utpala, champaka, etc., are given, and compound scents are arranged in a sort of scale according to the proportions of certain basic scents used in combination for their preparation. ( Ref. 11, p 104).
Cements
Vrihat Samhita also describes several preparations of cements or powders called vajra-lepa which means literally “ paints or coatings as strong as the thunder-bolt”, and vajrasamghata meaning “ composition as hard as the thunder-bolt”. There was ample use for these in the temple architecture of the Buddistic period, the remains of which bear testimony to the adamantine strength of these cements. From the description given for their preparation and use they are to be regarded respectively as rock-cements (varjra-lepa) and metal-cements ( vajra-samghata). ( Ref. 11, p 104 ).
Medicine
We now come upon a period which represents a transition in the progress of Hindu medicine so far as the nature and composition of substances used as drugs are concerned. From about the beginning of this period and even since the days of Vagbhata we find an increasing use of metallic preparations.
Two notable treatises of this period are the Siddhayoga of Vrinda and Chakradatta of Chakrapani Dutta. Synthetic metallic preparations have received considerable attention in these treatise. Both Vrinda and Chakrapani mention Nagarjuna as an authority, and follow closely in the footsteps of Charaka, Susruta and Vegbhata. Nagarjuna is the most conspicuous figure in Indian alchemy .
Chakrapani bases his work on that of Vrinda who again follows closely the order and the pathology of the Nidana of Madhavacharya or Madhavakara. Chakrapani, himself a learned commentator of the Charaka and the Susruta, wrote his work in 1050 A.D.
In medical science the Indians had made considerable progress. According to early tradition, Charaka, the author of Charaka-samhita, was a contemporary of Kanishka. The next important name is that of Susruta, the author of the well –known Samhita, who flourished earlier than fourth century A.D. Other well known writers are Vagbhata (7th c. A.D.) and Chakrapanidatta (11th c. A.D.).
Mercury has been mentioned as a constituent of a medicine to be applied externally for killing lice. The instruction for the preparation of this medicine is to rub quicksilver with the juice of Dhatura metel or Piper betle. The use of copper compounds has been prescribed in the preparation of a collyrium.
A preparation known as parpati-tamram has been described as follows. Sulphur, copper and the pyrites are to be pounded together with mercury and subjected to roasting in a closed crucible, and the product thus obtained to be administered with honey. Sulphides of copper and mercury are obviously produced by this operation. Sulphide of mercury constitutes the main ingredient of another preparation called rasamrita churnam.
In all the principal treatises of Hindu medicine of the Ayurvedic and the later periods, this influence of religion and philosophy on the theories and practice of medicine is clearly discernible. This is best illustrated in the Ayurvedic treatises, the Charaka and the Susruta, where we find an elaborate discourse on the origin of matter and life, and on duties and disciplines of life with a view to its spiritual progress, as well as on other philosophical doctrines blended with medical theories and recipes.
The character of the Hindu medical wisdom and its basis have been beautifully elucidated by Zimmer in his well-known book “ Hindu Medicine”. In Rasaratnakara we find recipes for a number of mercurial preparations, as well as descriptions of processes and apparatuses , of which there is no mention in Vegbhata or any other treatise of that time. We may not, therefore, be wide off the mark if we put down 7th or 8th century A.D. as its latest date. Reference may be made in this connection to the observations made by the great Arabian scholar Alberuni about one Nagarjuna, a native of the fort Daihak near Somnath, nearly a century earlier than his own time. This Nagarjuna has been described by Alberuni as a great adept in rasayana or alchemy and as the author of a rare book which contained the substance of the whole literature on the subject. Another important treatise of this period is Rasarnava, a Brahminical Tantra of the Saiva cult. Like Rasaratnakara it embodies much valuable information on chemistry. (Ref. 12 , p. 108,109,113,114,117,118 ).
Ayurveda
Ayurveda was discovered ,nurtured and perfected in India. This science of longevity was not just a collection of therapeutic recipes , but a frame-work , which defined conditions of sickness and connected them with healing practices. This science not only thrived in Bharat but also influenced healing practices of many other countries. Strong interaction existed between Greeks and Hindus around 4th Century BC, when the great Greek sage Appollonius of Tyana , came to India and carried this knowledge to many countries and thus influenced the healing traditions in Tibet , Sri Lanka , Burma ( Myanmar) and to some extent China ( Ref. 15 ).
Rasaratnakara of Nagarjuna
Calamine, a zinc mineral, when roasted with copper in the presence of reducing organic matters, is likely to give rise to brass, which was possibly passed as artificially prepared gold.
Silver alloyed with lead and fused with ashes becomes purified. Lo it is not to be wondered at that copper, melted with the alkali derived from the earth and the milk of the ewe, clarified butter and one-sixteenth of its weight of oil, will become pure like the crescent of the moon.
Makashika , (pyrites), repeatedly soaked in honey, oil of Ricinus communis, urine of the cow, clarified butter and the extract of the bulbous root of Musa aspientum, and heated in a crucible yields an essence in the shape of copper.
Risaka (calamine ), digested repeatedly with fermented paddy-water, natron and clarified butter, and mixed with wool, lac, Terminalia chebula and borax and roasted in a covered crucible, yields an essence of the appearance of tin.
Chapter Second of Rasaratnakara by Nagarjuna on the killing of diamond and the metals, extraction of the essence of minerals and liquefaction of mica.
Silver, copper, lead, zinc and mercury were often made into an amalgam, and the latter rendered compact and coloured yellow with the aid of orpiment. Process of fixation of mercury Piper longum, the dried root of ginger, the juice of Moringa pterygosperma, the tuber of Amorphophalus campanulatus, can readily amalgamate itself with the eight metals.
Nagarjuna mentioned remedies for warding off wrinkles, grey hair and other signs of old age. Mineral preparations act with equal efficacy on the metals as on the body (human system ) ( Ref. 12 , p. 129 – 133 ).
Chemistry of Rasarnava
It mentions apparatus for chemical operations and the Colour of Flames for detection of chemicals. Apparatus are , Dola Yantram , An Apparatus for Killing Metals , Garbha Yantram , Efficacy of the Apparatus , Hamsapaka Yantram ,
Crucibles , Kosthi Apparatus .
Colour of Flames – “copper yields a blue flame …. that of tin is pigeon –coloured; that of lead is pale-tinted … that of the iron is tawny;…. that of the “peacock” ore (sasyaka ) is red.
Test of a Pure Metal :- A pure metal is that, which when melted in a crucible, does not give off sparks nor bubbles, nor spurts, nor emits any sound, nor shows any lines on the surface, but is tranquil like a gem .
The Alkalies : The three alkalies are the borax, trona (natron ) and yavakshara (carbonate of potash).
Procedure for extraction of Copper from the Pyrites , extraction of Zinc from Calamine , extraction of Copper from Sasyaka are mentioned. Quicksilver , made into a paste by being rubbed with copper and subjected to distillation, leaves behind tin and lead (with which they are often adulterated) and becomes pure.
Take one pala of the ash of mercury and rub it with the same weight of sulphur and roast the mixture in a covered crucible ; thus we get vermilion of the colour of the rising sun. Process which gives rise to all alloy of copper, zinc and lead is also mentioned.
( Ref. 12 , p. 129,130,131, 133, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140)
Architecture / Town Planning
Epoch making discovery in 1922-23 AD, when the excavations of the ruins of Mohenjo-daro began, revealed the remains of successive cities, the earliest of which can be approx. dated about 2700 years before Christ. Further excavations at Harappa in Pakistan and various sites in Sindh and Baluchistan have proved the existence of a great civilization in this region which may be described as chalcolithic ( GK Chalcos = Copper ) i.e. combining the characteristics of both Neolithic and Copper Age. This is now generally called the Sindhu (Indus ) Valley Civilization.
Mohenjo-daro contains remains of succession of cities, each built upon the ruins of another, destroyed by the inundation of the Sindhu or other causes.
The extant ruins show remarkable town –planning. The streets, varying in width from 9 to 34 ft. , were regularly aligned , sometimes rerunning straight for half a mile. The principal streets were duly oriented to the points of the compass and intersected at right angles, dividing the city into square or rectangular blocks each of which was divided lengthwise and crosswise by a number of lanes. The city had on elaborate drainage system which opened into great culverts emptying in the river.
The dwelling houses varied from palatial building to one with two small rooms, showing the quarters of the rich and the poor.
……the most remarkable is the Great Bath measuring 180 ft by 108 ft. The bathing pool 39 ft long, 23 ft wide and 8 ft deep, occupies the center of a quadrangle, surrounded by verandas with room and galleries behind them. Near the Great Bath was a big granary originally 150 ft by 75 ft with massive construction and provision of loading facilities.
The largest building at Harappa has been named Great Granary. It measures 169 ft by 135 ft and is divided into two blocks , with a passage, 23 ft wide , between them, each hall having six halls with five intervening corridors.( Ref. 10, p 20,21)
The most widely accepted view is that the authors of Sindhu Valley Civilization were Dravidians. This would mean that the Sindhu Valley civilization flourished long before the Aryans came to India.(Ref. 10, p 22 ).
Art of Writing
The date of the vedic literature has formed the subject of a keen and protracted controversy. Max Muller started from the well known fact that some of the Upanishads were older than Buddha ( e.g. 500 BC) and came to the conclusion that the hymns of Rigveda must have been composed before 1200 – 1000 BC. Scholars like Jacobi and Tilak have, on astronomical grounds, referred the date of the Rik Samhita to a much higher antiquity than was contemplated by Max Muller. Thus Tilak refers some vedic texts to a period as far back as 6000 BC. According to Jacobi, the Vedic civilization flourished between 4500 and 2500 BC and the Samhitas were composed during later half of the period (Ref. 10 , p 40 ).
The available evidence merely proves, that the Vedic period extends from an unknown past say X, to 500 BC., none of the dates 1200-1500 BC, 1500 – 500 BC which are usually assumed, being justified by facts. (Ref. 10 , p 41).
……most scholars now agree in referring the introduction of writing in India to 7th century BC. They also hold that the ancient Indian alphabet , called Brahmi lipi, was derived from Semitic alphabets …… the generally accepted view is that of Buehler, who maintained that the Indian alphabet was derived from the earlist Phoenician alphabet which was in use in the 9th century BC.( Ref. 10, p 41 ).
Art and Sculpture
The artistic achievements of Ashoka may be classified under the following heads.
1. Stupas
2. Pillars
3. Caves
4. Residential buildings
Of the scanty remains of Asokan art, the most beautiful and at the same time the most characteristic specimens are furnished by the stone pillars. But by far the most magnificent capital is that of the Sarnath column – “ the finest piece of sculpture of its kind so far discovered in India.
The Indian art, which thus attained to a high standard of excellence during the period of the Mauryas. The caves of Asoka , although showing high technical skill, were neither very large nor richly carved. But many of the large caves of the next period, such as those at Bhaja, Bedsa, Kondane, Junnar, Nasik, Ajanta and Ellora in the west, and Udayagiri (near Bhuvaneshvar in Orissa ) in the east, not only show considerable developments in style, but are also highly decorated with fine sculptures and ornaments, and rank very high in point of artistic achievement. The cave at Karle, between Bomaby and Poona, is the finest example of this later series of caves.
Another instance of the progress of Indian art is to be seen in the highly ornamented gateways added to the stupas, the most notable case being that of the four gateways of the Sanchi stupa. There were various schools of sculpture in the post-Asokan period , the most notable being those of Gandhara, Mathura, Sarnath and Amaravati.( Ref.10 , p 222 – 226 ).
The Gupta architecture continues the tradition of the old and at the same time marks the beginning of a new age. The stupas and the rock-cut caves (both chaitya- halls and viharas ) continue the old forms, but possess striking novelty. The Dhamekh stupa at Sarnath, probably of the sixth century A.D., consisting of a circular stone drum with a cylindrical mass of brick works above it, and rising to a height of 128 ft., shows the final form of evolution of this type of structure. The caves, notably those at Ajanta (Nos. XVI, XVII, XIX ), while retaining the essential features of old , strike and altogether now line by the great beauty of their pillars of varied design and the fine paintings with which the inner walls and ceiling are decorated. Another notable groups of rock-cut monasteries and chaitya-halls are those of Ellora.
But it is in the domain of sculpture that the Gupta period witnesses the highest development of art in India. A copper image of Budha, about 80 feet thigh, was erected at Nalanda in Bihar at the close of the sixth century; and the fine Sultanganj Buddha, 7 ½ feet high, is still to be seen in the Museum at Birmingham (Ref. 10 , p 458 – 460 ).
Painting
The most ancient extant paintings in India do not go back more than a century or two before the Christian Era . These are frescoes in the Jogimara cave of the Ramgarh hill in the Surguja State, M.P. Traces of painting also exist in the Bedsa cave and probably belong to the 3rd century A.D. But the best fresco painting in India is illustrated in the series of Ajanta caves constructed between the first and seventh century A.D. These caves are 29 in number. (Ref.10 , p 460 ).
VIII . Vedangas / Literature – Grammar / Education
Of the Brahmanical literature , the most important are the works belonging to the Vedanga class. More important works under each of the six divisions of Vedangas are:
Siksha – Siksha may be defined as the science dealing with pronunciation of letters, accents, organs of pronunciation, delivery and euphonic laws.
Chhandas or Metre – Metre is dealt with in the Rigveda Pratisakhya the Sankhayana – Srauta – sutra, and the Nidana-Sutra belonging to the Samaveda.
Vyakarana or Grammar – The older works on this subject were superseded by the Grammar of Panini, called Ashtadhyayi . It has been rightly said about this work, that it presents ‘ the scientific treatment of a single tongue in a perfection which arouses the wonder and admiration of all those who are more thoroughly acquainted with it; it even now stands not only unsurpassed, but not even attained, and in many respects it may be looked upon as the model for similar work.
Panini was born & flourished in the fifth century B.C. His book, as the name implies, was divided into eight section comprising about 4,000 sutras and dealt mainly with the bhasha or current language of his time as opposed to the obsolete language of Vedic Samhitas. Two great grammarians who wrote commentaries on Panini’s work are Katyayana, the author of Varttikas, and Patanjali the author of Mahabhashya.
Nirukta or Etymology – As Grammar took its final shape in Panini’s work, so that etymological lexicography of Vedic terms was embodied in the Nirukta of Yaska, who flourished earlier than Panini.
Jyotisha – The only separate treatise on this subject is the Jyotisha – Vedanga, a small treatise of about 40 verses. It deals with the sun, the moon, and the 27 Nakshatras. The fact that it is written in verse, and not in the sutra style, shows that it is a later work.
Kalpa – The treatises on ritual fall into three classes include the Sulva-sutra which give directions for the building of sacrificial places and fire-altars, and thus constitute the oldest works on Indian Geometry. ( Ref 10 , p 189 – 191 ).
In addition to the religious literature described above, reference should also be made to the six definite schools of philosophy that were distinguished at an early date, vis. The Samkhya system of Kapila , the Yoga system of Patanjali, the Nyaya system of Gautama, the Vaiseshika system of Kanada, the Purva Mimamsa of Jaimini, and the Uttara – Mimamasa or the Vedanta of Vyasa. There were others of a technical character. Lexicons, grammar, dramaturgy and books on metrics and poetics, too numerous to mention in detail, have deservedly received a high recognition.
But although history received but scant attention, the allied sciences of Politics and Economics reached a high degree of development. ( Ref.10, p 441).
Education
The extensive literature described above is the visible product of a rational system of education which had no parallel in the history of the ancient world.
The object of this system of education was threefold: the acquisition of knowledge, the inculcation of social duties and religious rites, and above all, the formation of character. All the three aims were kept distinctly in the forefront, but the greatest emphasis was laid upon the last. Takshasila ( Taxila ) was the most famous seat of learning in ancient India till the rise of Nalanda in the fifth century A.D. It had many famous teachers, and attracted students not only from all parts of India but also from other parts of the world.
The Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsan studied at Nalanda for several years and has left a short but impressive accounts of its magnificence. There were thousands of similar institution in India’, says he, ‘but none comparable to Nalanda in grandeur. There were 10,000 students who studied not only the Buddhist literature in all its branches, but even other works such as the Vedas (including Atharvaveda), Logic, Grammar , Medicine, Sankhya Philosophy etc. and discourses were given from 100 pulpits every day. ( Ref. 12 , p. 451 – 453 ).
Regarding the dates of the philosophical systems nothing definite is known. But in the opinion of the most competent authorities on the subject like Max Muller, Macdonell and others it may be stated, without the risk of any serious or adverse criticism, that the six systems of Hindu philosophy gradually took their shape from the time of Buddha (5th century B.C) to about 100 B.C., accompanied by the growth and expansion of Jainism and Buddhism.
Professor Macdonell in his ‘History of Sanskirt Literature’ remarks on this question of priority as follows:
“According to Greek tradition, Thales, Empedocles, Anaxagoras, Democritus and others undertook journeys to oriental countries in order to study philosophy. Hence, there is at least the historical possibility of the Greeks having been influenced by the Indian thought through Persia”.
Colebrooke too sums up his views in the following words : “ I should be disposed to conclude that the Indians were in this instance teachers than learners “ ( Trans. Roy. Asiatic Soc., Vol. I, p. 579).
Prof. H.H. Wilson in his preface to Samkhyakarika (1887, p. IX ) also observes :- “that the Hindus derived any of their philosophical ideas from the Greeks seems very improbable, and if there is any borrowing in the case, the latter were most probably indebted to the former”. ( Ref. 12 , p. 47, 48 )
Arthasashtra
The Arthasashtra not only provides for State management of large scale trade and industry , and exercise of effective control over every profession , occupation and even public amusement and entertainments , and prescribes it to be the duty of the State to protect the helpless, the aged , and the orphan , and save the people from effect of natural calamities, but it also lays down what should be the proper relations between husband and wife , father and son , brother and sister etc. at what age and under what conditions one might renounce the world and adopt the life of recluse or ascetic , when it was legitimate to use witchcraft for gaining the affection of wives or sweethearts , how to teach manners to refractory women etc. In short the State played an effective part over a man’s social, economic, cultural , moral and even spiritual life , and there was hardly any limit to its sphere of activity.
The large volume of external trade pre-supposes keen industrial activity all over the country. The army supplied occupation to quite a large number of people who served as foot soldiers ,charioteers , cavalry , and elephant – riders. They must have also supported such trade and industries as dealing in horses and elephants , and working in wood and metals in order to get the requisite supply of chariots , sea – going vessels, and weapons of war. The supply of wood and metals necessitated cleaning of forests and working of mines , and Kautilya lays down elaborate regulations for both. There was a royal officer called “ Akaradhyaksha” –Superintendent of Mines , possessing necessary scientific knowledge. Another royal officer , Superintendent of metals , looked to the manufacture of copper , lead , tin ,mercury , brass , bronze , bell – metal , and sulphurate of arsenic , as well as commodities made out of them. The Superintendent of Ocean – mines attended to the collection of conch-shells , diamonds , precious stones , pearls , corals , and salt , and also regulated the commerce in these commodities. The Superintendent of forest produce looked to the preservation and maintenance of forests, and the manufacturer of all kinds of wooden articles which were necessary for life or for the defence of forts . A very important industry, connected with this, was that of ship-building on a very large scale.
It would thus appear that the State carried on many industries and had a monopoly over some of them. To use modern phraseology there was a nationalization of mines, armaments, forests, salt and other industries. Besides, the State not only had its own factories for textiles, oils, sugar, etc. but exercised a fair degree of general control over private trade and industry. The Superintendent of Commerce fixed both wholesale and retail prices, and took effective steps against smuggling, adulteration, use of false weights, and speculation or ‘ cornering’ to enhance prices. The strike of workmen in order to increase wages was illegal. On the whole regulations concerning trade and industry in the Arthasastra have a surprisingly modern look. ( Ref.10, p. 143,214)
IX . Mathematics
In Mathematics and Astronomy Indian intellect reached a high level of success. The earliest scientific works were the Siddhantas (4th c. A.D.) of which only a portion has survived. Of the later scholars who developed the science, the more well – known are Aryabhata (born in 476 A.D )., Varahamihira (6th c. A.D.) .
Vedic Mathematics ( Ref. 14 )
The Vedas are well-known as four in number Rg, Yajur, Sama and Atharva, but they have also the four Upavedas and the six Vedangas all of which form an indivisible corpus of divine knowledge as it once was and as it may be revealed. The four Upavedas are as follows:
Ayurveda ( anatomy ,physiology , hygine , sanitary science , medical science , surgery etc.)
Gandharvaveda ( the science and art of music )
Danurveda ( archery and other military science )
Sthapatyaveda ( engineering , architecture etc. and art of branches of mathematics in general ).
In this list the Upaveda of Sthapatya or engineering comprises all kinds of architectural and structural human endeavour and all visual arts. Swamiji naturally regarded mathematics or the science of calculations and computations to fall under this category.
Vedic Mathematics deals mainly with various Vedic mathematical formulae and their applications for carrying out tedious and cumbersome arithmetical operations, and to a very large extent, executing them mentally.
Some people may find it difficult, at first reading, to understand the arithmetical operations although they have been explained very lucidly by Jagadguru Swami Sri Bharati Krsna Tirthaji Maharaj. It is not because the explanations are lacking in any manner but because the methods are totally unconventional. Some people are so deeply rooted in the conventional methods that they probably, subconsciously reject to see the logic in unconventional methods.( Ref.14, p xv ).
Vedic system does not academically countenance (or actually follow ) any automatic or mechanical rule even in respect of the correct sequence or order to be observed with regard to the various subjects dealt with in the various branches of Mathematics (pure and applied) but leaves it entirely to the convenience and the inclination, the option, the temperamental predilection and even the individual idiosyncrasy of the teachers and even the students themselves as to what particular order or sequence they should actually adopt and follow!
This seems to have been the real historical reason why, barring a few unavoidable exceptions in the shape of elementary, basic and fundamental first principles, almost all the subjects dealt with in the various branches those very ‘basic principles’ or ‘first principles’, with the natural consequence that no particular subject or subjects need necessarily precede or follow some other particular subject or subjects.
Subjects like analytical conics and even calculus differential and integral are found to figure and fit in at a very early stage in our Vedic Mathematics because of their being expounded and worked out on basic first principles.
Vedic sequence of subjects and chapters the most suitable for our purpose, namely, the eliminating from the children’s minds of all fear and hatred of mathematics and the implanting therein of a positive feeling of exuberant love and enjoyment thereof!. “Whatever is consistent with right reasoning should be accepted, even though it comes from a boy or even from a parrot; and whatever is inconsistent therewith ought to be rejected, although emanating from an old man or even from the great sage Sri Suka himself.” ( Ref.14 , p. xix –xxi).
“The importance of the creation of the zero mark can never be exaggerated. This giving of airy nothing not merely a local habitation and a name, a picture but helpful power is the characteristic of the Hindu race whence it sprang. It is like coining the Nirvana into dynamos. No single mathematical creation has been more potent for the general on-go of intelligence and power”. (Prof. G.P.Halsted)
“The Hindus adopted the decimal scale very early. The numerical language of no other nation is so scientific and has attained as high a state of perfection as that of the ancient Hindus. In symbolism they succeeded with ten signs to express any number most elegantly and simply. It is this beauty of the Hindu numerical notation which attracted the attention of all the civilized peoples of the world and charmed them to adopt it”. ( B.B.Dutta,The Indian Historical Quarterly , Vol.3 ,pages 530 – 540 ).
“The Hindu notation was carried to Arabia about 770 A. D. by a Hindu scholar named Kanka who was invited from Ujjain to the famous Court of Baghdad by the Abbaside Kalif All-Mansur. Kanka taught Hindu astronomy and mathematics to the Arabian scholars; and, with his help, they translated into Arabic the Brahma-Sphuta-Siddhanta of Brahama Gutpa. The recent discovery by the French savant M. F. Nau proves that the Hindu numerals were well-known and much appreciated in Syria about the middle of the seventh century A. D.”(Ginsberg’s “ New Light on our numerals “, Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society , Second series , Vol.25 , pages 366 -369 ).
“From Arabia, the numerals slowly marched towards the West through Egypt and Northern Arabia; and they finally entered Europe in the eleventh century. The Europeans called them the Arabic notations, because they received them from the Arabs. But the Arabs themselves, the Eastern as well as the Western, have unanimously called them the Hindu figures (All-Arqan-Al-Hindu)”. ( B.B.Dutta ).
Historians of Mathematics (of the lofty eminence of Pro. De Morgan etc.) have not been guilty of even the least exaggeration in their candid admission that “even the highest and farthest reaches of modern Western mathematics have not yet brought the Western world even the threshold of Ancient Indian Vedic Mathematics”. ( Ref.14 , p. xxxiii – xxxviii ).
Vedic Sutras to Mathematical Problems ( Ref.14 )
It is not possible to deal the vast subject of different Vedic Sutras to solve mathematical problems in this brief article. Only some basic examples are given below for understanding the concept.
The first method is by means of multiplication by 2 (which is the “Ekadhika Purva”, i.e. the number which is just one more than the penultimate digit in this case)
Here, for reasons which will become clear presently, we can know beforehand that the last digit of the answer is bound to be 1. For, the relevant rule hereon (explained at a later stage) stipulates that the last digit of the denominator and the last digit of the decimal equivalent of the fraction in question must invariably end in 9. Therefore, as the last digit of the denominator in this case is 9, it automatically follows that the digit of the decimal equivalent is bound to be 1.
Start with 1 as the last (i. e. the right-hand-most) digit of the answer and proceed leftward continuously by 2 (which is the Ekadhika Purva, i. e. one more than the penultimate digit of the denominator in this case) until a repletion of the whole operation stares us in the face and intimates to us that we are dealing with a Recurring Decimal and may therefore put up the usual recurring marks (dots) and stop further multiplication-work.
The second method is of division (instead of multiplication) by the self-same “Ekadhika Purva”, namely 2. And, as division is the exact opposite of multiplication, it stands to reason that the operation of division should proceed, not from right to left (as in the case of multiplication as expounded hereinbefore) but in the exactly opposite direction, i. e. from left to right.
Even this much or rather. this little work of mental multiplication or division is not really necessary. This will be self-evident from sheer observation.
Let us put down the first 9 digits of the answer in one horizontal row just below and observe the fun of it. We notice that each set of digits in the upper row and the lower row totals 9.
0 5 2 6 3 1 5 7 8
9 4 7 3 6 8 4 2 1
9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
And this means that, when just half the work has been completed by either of the Vedic one-line methods, the other half need not be obtained by the same process but is mechanically available to us by subtracting form 9 each of the digits already obtained! And this means a reduction of the work still further by 50%.
According to the Vedic system, the multiplication tables are not really required above 5x5. The Sutras reads: (Nikhilam Navatascaramam Dasatah) which, literally translated, means: “all from 9 and the last from 10”!
Similar arithmetical computations of all types – multiplication , division , factorization ,simple equations , quadratic equations ,cubic equations , biquadratic equations ,multiple simultaneous equations , factorization and differential calculus , partial fractions , recurring decimals , sum and difference of squares , square roots & cube roots etc. are dealt in vedic mathematics.
( Ref 14 , different pages ).
Listed here are some of the achievements of Hindus in the field of mathematics.
Pythagorean Theorem principle discovered (Baudhayana, Baudhayan Sulba Sutra, 600 BC, 1000 years before Pythagoras).
Decimal System (references dating back to 100 BC)
Prefixes for raising 10 to powers as high as 53 (references dating back to 100 BC)
Time taken by the earth to orbit the Sun calculated as 365.258756484 days (Bhaskaracharya, Surya Siddhanta 400-400 AD)
Law of Gravity (Bhaskaracharya, Surya Siddhanta 400-500 AD)
Calculation of Value of pi as a ratio of 62832/2000 (Aryabhatta, 497 AD)
Earth’s rotation about its axis, orbits around the Sun and is suspended in space (Aryabhatta, Aryabhateeyam, 500 AD)
Discovery of Zero (mentioned in Pangala, Chandra Sutra 200 AD)
References : Source of information
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Ashok K Tiwari
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